Insect Control

Name: Insect Control | Biological and Synthetic Agents
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Biological and Synthetic Agents

Lawrence I. Gilbert Sarjeet S. Gill(Editor)

Academic Press

Published on 28. May 2010

490 pages

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Front Cover
Insect Control
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Contributors
Chapter 1 Pyrethroids
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Pyrethrum Extract
1.1.2 Synthetic Pyrethroids
1.2 Development of Commercial Pyrethroids
1.3 Structure-Activity Relationships in Pyrethroids
1.4 Mode of Action of Pyrethroids
1.4.1 Classification of Pyrethroids
1.4.2 Site of Action
1.4.2.1 Investigations based on nerve preparations
1.4.2.2 Investigations based on sodium channels
1.4.3 Modeling Studies on Prediction of Putative Pharmacophores
1.5 Resistance to Pyrethroids
1.5.1 Resistance Mechanisms
1.5.1.1 Metabolic resistance
1.5.1.1.1 Metabolism of pyrethroids in insects
1.5.1.1.2 Metabolic pathways
1.5.1.1.3 Ester hydrolysis
1.5.1.1.4 Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases
1.5.1.1.5 Model substrates
1.5.1.1.6 Glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs)
1.5.1.2 Cuticle penetration
1.5.1.3 Target-site resistance
1.5.2 Resistance to Pyrethroids in the Field
1.5.2.1 Chemistry-led options for circumventing resistance
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter A1 Addendum: Pyrethroid Insecticides and Resistance Mechanisms
A1.1 Introduction
A1.2 Market - Applications in Agricultural and Nonagricultural Fields
A1.3 Research for Novel Commercial Compounds - Products
A1.4 Resistance
A1.5 Pyrethroid-Sodium Channel Interactions
A1.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2 Indoxacarb and the Sodium Channel Blocker Insecticides: Chemistry, Physiology, and Biology in Insects
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chemistry of the Na+ Channel Blockers
2.2.1 Chemical Evolution and Structure-Activity of the Naclose+ Channel Blocker Insecticides
2.2.2 Chemistry and Properties of Indoxacarb
2.3 Metabolism and Bioavailability of Indoxacarb
2.3.1 Bioactivation of Indoxacarb
2.3.2 Catabolism of Indoxacarb and Other Naclose+ Channel Blocker Insecticides
2.4 Physiology and Biochemistry of the Na+ Channel Blockers
2.4.1 Symptoms of SCBI Poisoning in Insects: Pseudoparalysis
2.4.2 Block of Spontaneous Activity in the Nervous System
2.4.3 Block of Naclose+ Channels in Sensory Neurons
2.4.4 Mechanism of Naclose+ Channel Block
2.4.5 SCBIs Act at Site 10 on the Naclose+ Channel
2.4.6 The Molecular Nature of Site 10 in Insects
2.4.7 Biochemical Measurements of the Effects of SCBIs
2.4.8 Intrinsic Activity of Indoxacarb on Naclose+ Channels
2.4.9 Effects of SCBIs on Alternative Target Sites
2.5 Biological Potency of Indoxacarb
2.5.1 Spectrum and Potency of Indoxacarb in the Laboratory
2.5.2 Safety of Indoxacarb to Beneficial Insects
2.5.3 Sublethal Effects of Indoxacarb
2.5.4 Spectrum and Insecticidal Potency of Indoxacarb in the Field
2.5.5 Indoxacarb and Insecticide Resistance
2.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter A2 Addendum: Indoxacarb and the Sodium Channel Blockers: Chemistry, Physiology, and Biology in Insects
References
Chapter 3 Neonicotinoid Insecticides
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Neonicotinoid History
3.3 Chemical Structure of Neonicotinoids
3.3.1 Ring Systems Containing Commercial Neonicotinoids
3.3.1.1 1-[(6-Chloro-3-pyridinyl)-methyl]-N-nitro-2-imidazolidinimine (imidacloprid, NTN 33893)
3.3.1.2 [3-(6-Chloro-3-pyridinyl)methyl-2-thiazolidinylidene]-cyanamidine (thiacloprid, YRC 2894)
3.3.1.3 3-[(2-Chloro-5-thiazolyl)methyl]tetrahydro-5-methyl-N-nitro-4H-1,3,5-oxadiazin-4-imine (thiamethoxam, CGA 293'343
3.3.2 Neonicotinoids Having Noncyclic Structures
3.3.2.1 N-[(6-chloro-3-pyridinyl)methyl]-N-ethyl-N'-methyl-2-nitro-1,1,-ethenediamine (nitenpyram, TI-304)
3.3.2.2 (E)-N-[(6-chloro-3-pyridinyl)methyl]-N'-cyano-N-methyl-ethanimidamide (acetamiprid, NI-25)
3.3.2.3 [C(E)]-N-[(2-chloro-5-thiazolyl)methyl]-N'-methyl-NPrime-nitroguanidine (clothianidin, TI-435)
3.3.2.4 (plusmn)-N-methyl-N'-nitro-NPrime-[(tetrahydro-3-furanyl)methyl]guanidine (dinotefuran, MTI-446)
3.3.3 Bioisosteric Segments of Neonicotinoids
3.3.3.1 Ring systems versus noncyclic structures
3.3.3.2 Isosteric alternatives to the heterocyclic N-substituents
3.3.3.3 Bioisosteric pharmacophors
3.3.4 Physicochemistry of Neonicotinoids
3.3.4.1 Physicochemical properties of commercialized neonicotinoids
3.3.4.1.1 Imidacloprid
3.3.4.1.2 Thiacloprid
3.3.4.1.3 Thiamethoxam
3.3.4.1.4 Nitenpyram
3.3.4.1.5 Acetamiprid
3.3.4.1.6 Clothianidin
3.3.5 Proneonicotinoids
3.3.5.1 Ring cleavage to noncyclic neonicotinoids
3.3.5.2 Mannich adducts as useful precursors
3.3.5.3 Active metabolites of neonicotinoids
3.4 Biological Activity and Agricultural Uses
3.4.1 Efficacy on Target Pests
3.4.2 Agricultural Uses
3.4.2.1 Rice
3.4.2.2 Cotton
3.4.2.3 Vegetables
3.4.2.4 Cereals
3.4.3 Foliar Application
3.4.4 Soil Application and Seed Treatment
3.5 Mode of Action
3.6 Interactions of Neonicotinoids with the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
3.6.1 Selectivity for Insect over Vertebrate nAChRs
3.6.2 Whole Cell Voltage Clamp of Native Neuron Preparations
3.6.3 Correlation between Electrophysiology and Radioligand Binding Studies
3.7 Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism
3.7.1 Metabolic Pathways of Commercial Neonicotinoids
3.7.1.1 Imidacloprid
3.7.1.2 Thiacloprid
3.7.1.3 Thiamethoxam
3.7.1.4 Nitenpyram
3.7.1.5 Acetamiprid
3.7.1.6 Clothianidin
3.8 Pharmacology and Toxicology
3.8.1 Safety Profile
3.8.1.1 Mammalian toxicity
3.8.1.2 Environmental fate
3.9 Resistance
3.9.1 Activity on Resistant Insect Species
3.9.2 Mechanisms of Resistance
3.9.3 Resistance Management
3.10 Applications in Nonagricultural Fields
3.10.1 Imidacloprid as a Veterinary Medicinal Product
3.10.1.1 Insecticidal efficacy in veterinary medicine
3.10.1.2 Larvicidal activity
3.10.1.3 Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD)
3.10.1.4 Imidacloprid as combination partner in veterinary medicinal products
3.11 Concluding Remarks and Prospects
References
Chapter A3 Addendum: The Neonicotinoid Insecticides
References
Chapter 4 Insect Growth- and Development-Disrupting Insecticides
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Physiological Role and Mode of Action of the Insect Molting Hormone
4.1.1.1 Molecular basis of 20E action
4.1.1.2 Ecdysone receptors
4.2 Ecdysteroid Agonist Insecticides
4.2.1 Discovery of Ecdysone Agonist Insecticides and Commercial Products
4.2.1.1 Synthesis and structure-activity relationships (SAR)
4.2.2 Bisacylhydrazines as Tools of Discovery
4.2.2.1 Molecular modeling
4.2.2.2 Mutational analysis
4.2.2.3 Ligand-dependent conformational changes
4.2.2.4 Photoaffinity reagents for studying receptor-ligand interactions
4.2.3 Mode of Action of Bisacylhydrazines
4.2.3.1 Bioassay
4.2.3.2 Whole organism effects
4.2.4 Basis for Selective Toxicity of Bisacylhydrazine Insecticides
4.2.5 Spectrum of Activity of Commercial Products
4.2.6.1 Chromofenozide (MATRICreg
KILLATreg
ANS-118
CM-001)
4.2.5.2 Halofenozide (MACH II
RH-0345)
4.2.5.3 Tebufenozide (MIMIC
CONFIRM
ROMDAN
RH-5992) and methoxyfenozide (RUNNER
INTREPID
PRODIGY
RH-2485)
4.2.6 Ecotoxicology and Mammalian Reduced Risk Profiles
4.2.7 Resistance, Mechanism, and Resistance Potential
4.2.8 Other Chemistries and Potential for New Ecdysone Agonist Insecticides
4.2.9 Noninsecticide Applications of Nonsteroidal Ecdysone Agonists
Gene Switches in Animal and Plant Systems
4.2.9.1 Gene switch in mammalian systems
4.2.9.2 Gene switch for trait regulation in plants
4.2.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects of Ecdysone Agonists
4.3 Juvenile Hormone Analogs
4.3.1 Juvenile Hormone Action
4.3.2 Putative Molecular Mode of Action of JH
4.3.3 Pest Management with JHAs
4.3.3.1 Biological action of JHAs
4.3.3.2 Properties and mode of action of selected JHAs
4.3.3.2.1 Methoprene (ALTOSIDreg, APEXSEreg, DIANEXreg, PHARORIDreg, PRECORreg, VIODATreg)
4.3.3.2.2 Kinoprene (ENSTARreg)
4.3.3.2.3 Fenoxycarb (INSEGARreg, LOGICreg, TORUSreg, PICTYLreg, VARIKILLreg)
4.3.3.2.4 Pyriproxifen (KNACKreg, SUMILARVreg, ADMIRALreg)
4.3.4 Use of JHAs for Pest Management
4.3.4.1 Control of public health and veterinary insects
4.3.4.2 Anti-JH for pest management
4.3.5 Effects on Nontarget Invertebrates and Vertebrates
4.3.6 Conclusions and Future Research of JHAs
4.4 Insecticides with Chitin Synthesis Inhibitory Activity
4.4.1 Brief Review of Old Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors
4.4.2 New Chemistries and Products
4.4.3 Mode of Action and SAR
4.4.4 Spectrum of Activity
4.4.5 Ecotoxicology and Mammalian Safety
4.4.6 Resistance, Mechanism for Resistance and Resistance Potential
4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects of Insect Growth- and Development-Disrupting Insecticides
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
Chapter A4 Addendum: Recent Progress on Mode of Action of 20-Hydroxyecdysone, Juvenile Hormone (JH), Non-Steroidal Ecdysone Agonist and
A4.1 Recent Progress on Mode of Action of 20-Hydroxyecdysone and Non-Steroidal Ecdysone Agonist Insecticides
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Azadirachtin, a Natural Product in Insect Control
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 The Neem Tree
5.2 Azadirachtin Research up to 1985
5.3 Chemistry of Neem Products
5.3.1 Neem Limonoids
5.3.2 Isolation of Azadirachtin
5.3.3 Analysis
5.3.4 Stability and Persistence
5.4 Neem Insecticides in Pest Control.
5.4.1 Background
5.4.2 Use in Integrated Pest Management
5.4.3 Toxicity to Nontarget Organisms
5.4.4 Resistance
5.4.5 Systemic Action
5.5 Antifeedant Effects of Azadirachtin
5.6 Neuroendocrine Effects of Azadirachtin
5.6.1 Insect Growth Regulation
5.6.2 Reproduction
5.7 Studies on the Mode of Action of Azadirachtin
5.7.1 Studies using Insect Cell Lines
5.7.2 Effects on Cell Cycle Events
5.7.3 Binding Studies
5.7.4 Effects on Protein Synthesis
5.7.5 Studies Using Mammalian Cell Lines
5.7.6 Resolving the Mode of Action of Azadirachtin
References
Chapter A5 Addendum: Azadirachtin, A Natural Product in Insect Control: An Update
A5.1 Synthesis of Azadirachtin
A5.2 Emerging Technologies for Understanding Mode of Action
A5.3 Commercial Use of Neem Seed Insecticides
A5.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 The Spinosyns: Chemistry, Biochemistry, Mode of Action, and Resistance
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Discovery, Structure, and Biosynthesis of the Spinosyns
6.2.1 The Spinosyns
6.2.2 The 21-Butenyl Spinosyns
6.2.3 Spinosyn Biosynthesis
6.2.4 Physical Properties of the Spinosyns
6.3 Pharmacokinetics of Spinosad
6.3.1 Metabolism of the Spinosyns
6.3.1.1 Mammalian and avian spinosyn metabolism
6.3.1.2 Spinosyn metabolism in insects
6.3.2 Spinosyn Penetration into Insects
6.3.3 Insecticidal Concentration in the Cockroach
6.4 Mode of Action of Spinosyns
6.4.1 Poisoning Symptoms
6.4.2 Gross Electrophysiology
6.4.2.1 Spinosyns excite the central nervous system in vivo and in vitro
6.4.2.2 Mechanism of paralysis by spinosyns
6.4.2.3 Spinosyns excite central neurons by inducing an inward, depolarizing, current
6.4.2.4 Activation of nicotinic receptors by spinosyns generates a depolarizing inward current
6.4.3 Nicotinic Receptors as the Spinosyn Target Site
6.4.3.1 Two subtypes of nicotinic receptors
6.4.3.2 Selective action of spinosyns on the nAChN subtype of nicotinic receptor
6.4.3.3 Correlation of spinosyn biological activity with potency on nAChN receptors
6.4.4 Effects of Spinosyns on GABA Receptors in Small Diameter Neurons of Cockroach
6.5 Biological Properties of the Spinosyns
6.5.1 Biological Activity and Spectrum of the Spinosyns
6.5.1.1 Pest insects
6.5.1.1.1 Structure-activity relationships of spinosyns - Lepidoptera
6.5.1.1.2 Structure-activity relationships of spinosyns - Diptera
6.5.1.1.3 Structure-activity relationships of spinosyns - Homoptera
6.5.1.1.4 Structure-activity relationships of spinosyns - Acarina
6.5.1.2 Nontarget organisms
6.5.1.2.1 Beneficial insects
6.5.1.2.2 Mammalian toxicology and ecotoxicology
6.6 Resistance Mechanisms and Resistance Management
6.6.1 Cross-Resistance
6.6.2 Resistance Mechanisms
6.6.3 Resistance Management
6.7 Spinosyns and Spinosoid Structure-Activity Relationships
6.7.1 Modifications of the Tetracycle
6.7.2 Modification or Replacement of the Forosamine Sugar
6.7.3 Modification or Replacement of the Tri-O-Methyl-Rhamnose Sugar
6.7.4 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships and the Spinosyns
6.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
Chapter A6 Addendum: The Spinosyns
A6.1 Spinosyn Chemistry and Biosynthesis
A6.2 Mode of Action
A6.3 Spinosad Resistance and Cross Resistance
References
Chapter 7 Bacillus thuringiensis: Mechanisms and Use
7.1 General Characteristics
7.2 Virulence Factors and the PlcR Regulon
7.3 Insecticidal Toxins
7.3.1 Classification and Nomenclature
7.3.2 Structure of Toxins
7.3.3 Evolution of Three-Domain Toxins
7.4 Mode of Action of Three-Domain Cry Toxins
7.4.1 Intoxication Syndrome of Cry Toxins
7.4.2 Solubilization and Proteolytic Activation
7.4.3 Receptor Identification
7.4.4 Toxin Binding Epitopes
7.4.5 Receptor Binding Epitopes
7.4.6 Cry Toxin-Receptor Binding Function in Toxicity
7.4.7 Toxin Insertion
7.4.8 Pore Formation
7.5 Synergism of Mosquitocidal Toxins
7.6 Genomics
7.6.1 Sequence of Plasmid pBtoxis
7.7 Mechanism of Insect Resistance
7.7.1 Proteolytic Activation
7.7.2 Receptor Binding
7.7.3 Oligosaccharide Synthesis
7.8 Applications of Cry Toxins
7.8.1 Forestry
7.8.2 Control of Mosquitoes and Blackflies
7.8.3 Transgenic Crops
7.9 Public Concerns on the Use of B. thuringiensis Crops
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter A7 Addendum: Bacillus thuringiensis, with Resistance Mechanisms
A7.1 Mode of Action of Cry Toxins
A7.2 Conserved Cry Toxin-binding Proteins Among Different Insect Orders
A7.3 Other Cry Proteins Used in Insect Control
A7.4 Cyt1Aa Functions as a Surrogate Receptor for Cry11Aa
References
Chapter 8 Mosquitocidal Bacillus sphaericus: Toxins, Genetics, Mode of Action, Use, and Resistance Mechanisms
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Generalities
8.1.2 Comparison of the Properties of Mosquitocidal Strains of Bacillus sphaericus
8.2 Biochemistry and Genetics of B. sphaericus Toxins
8.2.1 Crystal Toxins
8.2.2 Mtx Toxins
8.3 Mode of Action of B. sphaericus Toxins
8.3.1 The Crystal Toxins
8.3.1.1 Cytopathology and physiological effects
8.3.1.2 Binding to a specific receptor in the brush border membrane
8.3.1.3 Permeabilization of artificial lipid membranes
8.3.1.4 Identification and cloning of the Bin toxin receptor
8.3.2 The Mtx1 Toxin
8.4 Field Use of B. sphaericus
8.5 Resistance To B. sphaericus
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Genetics and Mechanisms of Resistance
8.5.2.1 Molecular basis of laboratory-selected resistance
8.5.2.2 Mechanisms of field-selected resistance
8.6 Conclusions and Perspectives: Management of B. sphaericus-Resistance
References
Chapter A8 Addendum: Bacillus sphaericus Taxonomy and Genetics
A8.1 Mtx1 Toxin Structure
A8.2 New Toxins
A8.3 Characterization of Other Bin Toxin Receptors in Culicide Larvae
A8.4 Characterization of Resistance Alleles and Resistance Management
References
Chapter 9 Insecticidal Toxins from Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 The Biology of Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus
9.1.1.1 Bacteria, nematodes, and insects
9.1.1.2 Bacterial nomenclature
9.1.2 The Need for Alternatives to Bt
9.2 The Toxin Complexes
9.2.1 Discovery of the Toxin Complexes
9.2.1.1 Purification and cloning of Photorhabdus toxins
9.2.1.2 Cloning of Xenorhabdus toxins
9.2.1.3 Genomic organization of Photorhabdus tc genes
9.2.2 Homologs in Other Bacteria
9.2.3 Molecular Biology of the toxin complex Genes
9.2.3.1 toxin complex gene organization
9.2.3.2 Expression and structure of Photorhabdus toxins
9.3 The Makes Caterpillars Floppy Toxins
9.3.1 Discovery of Makes Caterpillars Floppy
9.3.1.1 Cloning of mcf1
9.3.1.2 Cloning of mcf2 homologs
9.4 Toxin Genomics
9.4.1 Microarray Analysis
9.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter A9 Addendum: Recent Advances in Photorhabdus Toxins
A9.1 Discovery of New Toxins
A9.2 A New Genome Sequence for P. asymbiotica
A9.3 New Systems for the Dissection of Bacterial Virulence
A9.4 Advances in Toxin Mode of Action
References
Chapter 10 Genetically Modified Baculoviruses for Pest Insect Control
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Insertion of Hormone and Enzyme Genes
10.2.1 Hormones
10.2.1.1 Diuretic hormone
10.2.1.2 Eclosion hormone
10.2.1.3 Prothoracicotropic hormone
10.2.1.4 Pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide
10.2.2 Juvenile Hormone Esterase
10.2.2.1 Increase in in vivo stability
10.2.2.2 Gene silencing and RNA interference
10.2.3 Proteases
10.2.3.1 Enhancins
10.2.3.2 Basement membrane degrading proteases
10.2.4 Other Enzymes and Factors
10.3 Insertion of Insect Selective Toxin Genes
10.3.1 Scorpion Toxins
10.3.1.1 AaIT
10.3.1.2 Lqh and Lqq
10.3.2 Mite Toxins
10.3.3 Other Toxins
10.3.4 Improvement of Toxin Efficacy by Genetic Modifications
10.3.4.1 Alteration of the timing and level of expression
10.3.4.2 Better secretion and folding
10.3.4.3 Expression of multiple synergistic toxins
10.3.5 Toxin Interactions with Chemical Pesticides
10.4 Modification of the Baculovirus Genome
10.4.1 Deletion of the Ecdysteroid UDP-Glucosyltransferase Gene
10.4.2 Removal of Other Nonessential Genes
10.4.3 Alteration of Host Range
10.5 Safety of GM Baculoviruses
10.5.1 Potential Effects of a GM Baculovirus on Nontarget Species
10.5.2 Fitness of GM Baculoviruses
10.5.3 Movement of the Introduced Gene to Another Organism
10.6 Field Testing and Practical Considerations
10.7 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter A10 Addendum: Genetically Modified Baculoviruses for Pest Insect Control
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 Entomopathogenic Fungi and their Role in Regulation of Insect Populations
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Entomopathogenic Fungi
11.2.1 Phylum Oomycota
11.2.2 Phylum Chytridiomycota
11.2.3 Phylum Zygomycota
11.2.4 Ascomycota (and Deuteromycota)
11.2.5 Basidiomycota
11.2.6 Approaches to Classification
11.3 Biology and Pathogenesis
11.3.1 Encounter with Host
11.3.2 Specificity and Host Range
11.3.2.1 Vertebrate safety
11.3.3 Mode of Action and Host Reactions
11.3.3.1 Toxin production
11.3.3.2 Behavioral responses
11.3.4 Spore Production on Host
11.3.5 Transmission and Dispersal
11.3.6 Interactions between Pathogens and Other Natural Enemies
11.4 Evaluation of and Monitoring Fate
11.5 Epizootiology and Its Role in Suppressing Pest Populations
11.5.1 Epigeal Environment
11.5.2 Soil Environment
11.5.3 Aquatic Environment
11.6 Development as Inundative Microbial Control Agents
11.6.1 Mass Production
11.6.2 Commercialized Products
11.6.2.1 Beauveria bassiana
11.6.2.2 Beauveria brongniartii
11.6.2.3 Lecanicillium lecanii
11.6.2.4 Metarhizium anisopliae
11.6.2.5 Paecilomyces fumosoroseus
11.6.2.6 Others
11.6.3 Improvement of Efficacy
11.6.3.1 Strain selection
11.6.3.2 Genetic modification
11.6.3.3 Formulation and application strategies
11.7 Development as Inoculative Microbial Control Agents
11.8 Use in Classical Biocontrol
11.9 Role in Conservation Biocontrol
11.10 What Does the Future Hold?
References
Chapter A11 Addendum: Entomopathogenic Fungi and Their Role in Regulation of Insect Populations, 2004-2009
A11.1 Introduction
A11.2 Systematics
A11.3 Approaches to Classification and Development of PCR Tools for Ecological Studies
A11.4 New Insights into an Ecological Role of Entomopathogenic Fungi
A11.5 Potential in Conservation Biological Control
A11.6 Production
A11.7 Role of Metabolites
A11.8 Advances in Molecular Genetics
A11.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Insect Transformation for Use in Control
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Status of Transgenic-Based Insect Control Programs
12.2.1 Load Imposition on the Target Population
12.2.2 Challenges of Long-Term Gene Introduction into Natural Populations
12.2.3 Engineering of Beneficial Insects
12.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter A12 Addendum: Insect Transformation for Use in Control
A12.1 Introduction
A12.2 Progress in strategies Dependent on the Release of Sterile Insects
A12.3 Progress in Strategies of Population Replacement
A12.4 Challenges that Remain
References
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