
Location-Based Services in Cellular Networks
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Content
- Intro
- Preface
- I Positioning Overview, Applications, and Use Cases
- Chapter 1 Introduction to Positioning in Cellular Networks
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 History of Cellular Networks
- 1.2.1 2G
- 1.2.2 3G
- 1.2.3 4G
- 1.2.4 5G
- 1.2.5 Summary of the Cellular Technologies
- 1.3 History of Navigation
- 1.3.1 Satellite Navigation
- 1.3.2 Cellular Network Positioning
- 1.4 About This Book
- References
- Chapter 2 Positioning Fundamentals
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Coordinate Frames
- 2.2.1 World Geodetic System
- 2.2.2 East North Up
- 2.2.3 Dispatchable Location
- 2.3 Positioning Measurements
- 2.3.1 Time of Arrival
- 2.3.2 Time Difference of Arrival
- 2.3.3 Round-Trip Time
- 2.3.4 Phase of Arrival
- 2.3.5 Angle of Arrival
- 2.3.6 Received Signal Strength
- 2.4 Positioning Methods
- 2.4.1 Proximity
- 2.4.2 Triangulation
- 2.4.3 Trilateration
- 2.4.4 Multilateration
- 2.4.5 RF Fingerprinting
- 2.5 Positioning Concepts
- 2.5.1 Accuracy and Precision
- 2.5.2 Dilution of Precision
- 2.5.3 One-Way and Two-Way Positioning Systems
- 2.6 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 3 Regulatory Positioning Requirements
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Positioning Technology in the United States
- 3.3 FCC Location Accuracy Requirements
- 3.3.1 FCC Phase I Requirements
- 3.3.2 FCC Phase II Requirements
- 3.4 The E911 System
- 3.4.1 Positioning on GSM, UMTS, and LTE Networks
- 3.4.2 LCS Positioning Protocols
- 3.4.3 Indoor Localization
- 3.5 Regulation in the EU Related to Emergency Location Services
- 3.5.1 Brief History of the E112
- 3.5.2 eCall
- 3.5.3 Next Generation eCall
- 3.5.4 PEMEA
- 3.5.5 Advanced Mobile Location
- 3.5.6 ELS and other AML Enhancements
- 3.6 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 4 Commercial Location-Based Services in LTE
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 LTE Commercial LBS Applications
- 4.2.1 Mobile Phone Architecture for LBS
- 4.2.2 Automotive Applications
- 4.2.3 Vehicle Architecture
- 4.2.4 Autonomous Driving
- 4.3 D2D
- 4.4 V2X
- 4.4.1 Brief History
- 4.4.2 V2X Technology
- 4.4.3 V2X Frequency Allocation
- 4.4.4 V2X Network Architecture
- 4.4.5 V2X Protocol
- 4.5 Internet of Things
- 4.5.1 IoT Applications
- 4.5.2 Comparison of the Different IoT Technologies
- 4.5.3 C-IoT Network Architecture
- 4.5.4 Positioning on IoT Devices
- 4.6 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 5 The Evolution of LBS for 5G
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 The 5G System
- 5.2.1 Motivation for 5G
- 5.2.2 Standardization Plan
- 5.2.3 5G Frequency Spectrum
- 5.2.4 5G Network Deployment Scenarios
- 5.3 5G NR Network Architecture
- 5.3.1 U-Plane Architecture
- 5.4 Positioning in the 5G Network
- 5.4.1 SA Emergency Call
- 5.4.2 NSA Emergency Call
- 5.4.3 Emergency Call Fallback
- 5.4.4 LCS Architecture
- 5.5 Positioning Use Cases and Technologies
- 5.5.1 Positioning Technologies Supported for NR
- 5.5.2 Positioning KPIs
- 5.5.3 Commercial Positioning Use Cases
- 5.5.4 3GPP Positioning Requirements
- 5.5.5 V2X in 5G
- 5.6 Conclusion
- References
- II Positioning Technologies
- Chapter 6 Assisted GNSS
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 GNSS Basics
- 6.2.1 GNSS Signal Power
- 6.2.2 The Ephemeris: Satellite Position
- 6.2.3 Clocks
- 6.2.4 Atmosphere and Ionosphere
- 6.2.5 The Almanac
- 6.2.6 Acquisition and First Location Fix
- 6.2.7 The Positioning Algorithm
- 6.2.8 GNSS Basics Summary
- 6.3 A-GNSS
- 6.3.1 Motivation
- 6.3.2 A-GNSS Protocols
- 6.3.3 Navigation Message via Cellular Networks
- 6.3.4 Reference Location
- 6.3.5 Reference Frequency
- 6.3.6 Reference Time
- 6.3.7 MS-Assisted vs. MS-Based
- 6.3.8 A-GNSS Reference Station Network
- 6.4 From GPS to Multi-GNSS
- 6.4.1 GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo: Similarities and Differences
- 6.4.2 Orbital Mechanics
- 6.5 GNSS Multifrequency
- 6.5.1 GNSS Legacy Signals and Modernized GNSS Signals
- 6.5.2 GNSS Signal Characteristics Overview
- 6.5.3 GNSS Frequency Bands
- 6.6 Reliability and Redundancy
- 6.6.1 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
- 6.6.2 SBAS
- 6.6.3 GPS Week Rollover
- 6.6.4 UTC Leap Second
- 6.7 GNSS, the RAN, and the Core Network
- 6.7.1 Dynamic Spectrum Use with the Aid of GNSS
- 6.8 GNSS Limitations and Complementary Systems
- 6.8.1 STL - LEO Satellite Based Positioning
- 6.8.2 Terrestrial Technologies and IMUs
- 6.9 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 7 High-Precision GNSS in 5G
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 The Principle of Differential-GPS
- 7.2.1 Differential GPS
- 7.2.2 Single Differencing and Double Differencing
- 7.3 RTK: Observation State Representation
- 7.3.1 Carrier-Phase Measurements
- 7.3.2 Integer Ambiguity Resolution
- 7.3.3 Reduced Convergence Time with Multi-GNSS and Multifrequency
- 7.3.4 Scaling up RTK
- 7.3.5 Network-RTK
- 7.4 PPP, PPP-AR, and PPP-RTK: SSR
- 7.4.1 Wide Area DGPS
- 7.4.2 Precise Point Positioning
- 7.4.3 PPP-AR
- 7.4.4 PPP-RTK
- 7.4.5 QZSS CLAS Message Elements: Compact SSR
- 7.5 RTK/PPP in 5G
- 7.6 Conclusion
- 7.6.1 Comparison and Evaluation of the Technologies
- 7.6.2 Compatibility N-RTK and RTK-PPP Methods
- 7.6.3 Summary: (N-)RTK, PPP, RTK-PPP, and 5G
- References
- Chapter 8 Terrestrial Positioning Technologies: Cellular Networks
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Cell ID
- 8.2.1 The Timing Advance
- 8.3 Enhanced Observed Time Difference
- 8.4 Multilateration TA and Multilateration OTD
- 8.5 Advanced Forward Link Trilateration
- 8.6 Enhanced Cell ID
- 8.7 Observed Time Difference of Arrival
- 8.8 Uplink Time of Arrival
- 8.9 Uplink Time Difference of Arrival
- 8.10 Hybrid Positioning
- 8.10.1 Hybrid Positioning Algorithm
- 8.10.2 Hybrid Equation System
- 8.10.3 Hybrid Dilution of Precision
- 8.10.4 Weighted Least Squares Algorithm
- 8.10.5 RAIM Enhancements
- 8.11 Sources of Error in Cellular Network Positioning
- 8.11.1 Network Synchronization
- 8.11.2 Multipath Propagation
- 8.11.3 Geometry of the Base Station Network
- 8.11.4 Location Database Error
- 8.12 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 9 Terrestrial Positioning Technologies: Noncellular Networks
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Noncellular Network-Based Positioning
- 9.3 Wi-Fi
- 9.3.1 Wi-Fi Fundamentals
- 9.3.2 BSSID-Based Positioning
- 9.3.3 BSSID+RSSI-Based Positioning
- 9.3.4 Wi-Fi RSS Fingerprinting
- 9.3.5 Wi-Fi RTT
- 9.4 Bluetooth
- 9.4.1 Bluetooth Low Energy
- 9.4.2 Beacon-Based Positioning
- 9.4.3 Bluetooth Direction Finding
- 9.5 Terrestrial Beacon System
- 9.6 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 10 5G Positioning Technologies
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Differences between LTE and NR
- 10.2.1 Frequency and Beamforming
- 10.2.2 Numerology and NR Time Unit
- 10.2.3 UE-Based Positioning
- 10.3 Timing-Based Technologies
- 10.3.1 DL-TDOA
- 10.3.2 UL-TDOA
- 10.3.3 Multi-RTT
- 10.4 Signal Power-Based Technologies
- 10.4.1 NR ECID
- 10.4.2 PRS RSRP
- 10.5 Angle-Based Technologies
- 10.5.1 DL-AoD
- 10.5.2 UL-AoA
- 10.6 Other Positioning Candidates
- 10.6.1 Carrier-Phase-Based Positioning
- 10.6.2 PDoA Positioning
- 10.6.3 Hybrid Positioning
- 10.7 Sources of Error in 5G NR-Based Positioning
- 10.7.1 Network Synchronization
- 10.7.2 Multipath Propagation
- 10.7.3 Other Sources
- 10.8 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 11 Comparison of the Positioning Technologies
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 Primary Metric: Accuracy
- 11.2.1 Statistics
- 11.2.2 RAT-Dependent Technologies: 5G Positioning Study
- 11.2.3 RAT-Independent Technologies
- 11.3 Additional Metrics
- 11.3.1 Time-to-First-Fix
- 11.3.2 UE Energy Consumption
- 11.3.3 Network Load
- 11.3.4 UE Complexity
- 11.3.5 Base Station Complexity
- 11.4 Technology Comparison
- 11.4.1 Technology Matrix
- 11.4.2 Notes per Technology
- 11.5 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 12 Other Positioning Technologies: Sensors
- 12.1 Introduction
- 12.2 IMU
- 12.3 Barometer
- 12.4 Radar
- 12.4.1 Automotive Radars
- 12.5 Lidar
- 12.5.1 Field of View
- 12.6 Ultrasonic
- 12.7 Sensor Fusion
- 12.7.1 Sensor Fusion Applications
- 12.7.2 Bayesian Networks
- 12.7.3 Bayesian Probability
- 12.7.4 Kalman Filter
- 12.7.5 Particle Filter
- 12.8 Conclusion
- References
- III Positioning Protocols
- Chapter 13 Positioning Protocols in Cellular Networks
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 General Protocol Description
- 13.2.1 Fundamental Transactions
- 13.2.2 Generic Call Flow
- 13.2.3 Position Calculation Modes
- 13.3 Data Encoding
- 13.3.1 Tabular Encoding
- 13.3.2 ASN.1 Encoding
- 13.3.3 HTTP2/JSON, OpenAPI 3.0.0, and YAML
- 13.3.4 HTTP1/XML
- 13.4 C-Plane Legacy Protocols: 2G, 3G
- 13.4.1 GSM: 3GPP RRLP
- 13.4.2 WCDMA: 3GPP UTRAN RRC
- 13.4.3 CDMA2000: 3GPP2 C.S0022 (TIA-801)
- 13.5 SUPL: The User-Plane Location Protocol
- 13.5.1 SUPL Call Flow
- 13.5.2 Security and Encryption
- 13.5.3 Network-Initiated Sessions
- 13.5.4 Set-Initiated Sessions
- 13.5.5 SUPL Version Compatibility
- 13.5.6 Proprietary Protocols
- 13.6 Privacy
- 13.6.1 C-Plane Privacy and MO Sessions: LCS Protocol
- 13.6.2 SUPL Privacy
- 13.7 Periodic Sessions and Geofencing
- 13.7.1 C-Plane
- 13.7.2 U-Plane
- 13.8 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 14 Positioning Protocol in LTE
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 LPP
- 14.2.1 Fundamental Transactions and Basic Call Flow
- 14.2.2 Description of the LPP Transactions
- 14.2.3 LPP Error
- 14.2.4 LPP Abort
- 14.3 LPP Updates Up to Release 12
- 14.3.1 Early Fix
- 14.3.2 Dual-Technology LPP Flow
- 14.4 OMA LPPe
- 14.4.1 Coexistence with LPP
- 14.4.2 Closing the Gap Between LPP and LPPe
- 14.5 Indoor Positioning
- 14.5.1 3GPP Release-13 Indoor Positioning Updates
- 14.5.2 Wi-Fi Positioning
- 14.5.3 Bluetooth Positioning
- 14.5.4 Barometric Sensor Positioning
- 14.5.5 Terrestrial Beacon System Positioning
- 14.6 Other LPP Release-13 and Release-14 Updates
- 14.6.1 ECID Modifications
- 14.6.2 OTDOA Modifications
- 14.7 LPP Release 15
- 14.7.1 The Positioning SIB
- 14.7.2 Motion Sensor Positioning
- 14.7.3 RTK
- 14.8 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 15 Positioning Protocol in 5G
- 15.1 Introduction
- 15.2 Release-15 5G Positioning Support
- 15.2.1 Reusing LPP
- 15.2.2 Transporting LPP over C-Plane in the Different 5G Deployments
- 15.2.3 Transporting LPP over SUPL in the Different 5G Deployments
- 15.3 Release-16 LPP Enhancements for 5G
- 15.3.1 Enhancements to Common Information Elements
- 15.3.2 Enhancements to the Capability Exchange
- 15.3.3 Enhancements to the Assistance Data
- 15.3.4 Enhancements to the Location Information
- 15.3.5 Abort and Error LPP Messages
- 15.4 Release-16 Common LPP updates
- 15.4.1 Enhancements to SSR Assistance Data
- 15.5 Conclusion
- References
- Chapter 16 Positioning in a Virtualized Network
- 16.1 Introduction
- 16.2 The Mobile Network Core
- 16.2.1 EPC and 5GC Network Architecture
- 16.2.2 Functions of the Core
- 16.2.3 First Phase of Core Network Virtualization
- 16.2.4 Second Phase of Core Network Virtualization
- 16.2.5 Scaling Up and Down
- 16.2.6 Network Slicing
- 16.3 Positioning in the Core Network
- 16.3.1 Positioning Call Flows
- 16.3.2 4G and 5G Core Network Protocols
- 16.3.3 Virtualized Core: Impact on Positioning
- 16.4 Virtualized RAN
- 16.4.1 Functions of the RAN
- 16.4.2 RAN Higher Layer Split (Split Option 2)
- 16.4.3 RAN Lower Layer Split (Split Option 7.2)
- 16.4.4 RAN Lower Layer Split Protocols
- 16.4.5 Flexible Splits Based on Usage Scenario
- 16.4.6 RAN Architectures: Impact on Positioning
- 16.5 Conclusion
- References
- List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
- About the Authors
- Index
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