
Stress Science
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Content
- Front Cover
- Stress Science: Neuroendocrinology
- Copyright Page
- Introduction
- Acknowledgment
- Contributors
- Contents
- I. STRESS DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
- Stress: Definition and History
- Introduction and Historical Outline of Several Stress Concepts
- Definitions of Stress
- Selye's Definition of Stress - A Further Consideration
- General Adaptation Syndrome
- Stressors: Features of and Lack of Stressor Sign
- Nonspecificity of Stress Response
- Heat Shock (Stress) Proteins
- Concepts of Stress and Disease
- Future Developments of Stress Concepts
- See Also the Following Articles
- Stress: Homeostasis, Rheostasis, Allostasis and Allostatic Load
- Introduction
- Characteristics of Homeostatic Systems
- Need for Refocusing of the Concept of Homeostasis and Additional Terminology
- What Is Stress?
- Allostasis
- Allostatic States
- Allostatic Load and Overload
- Types of Allostatic Overload
- Role of Behavior in Allostatic Overload
- See Also the Following Articles
- Control and Stress
- Glossary
- Behavioral Control and Physiological Stress Responses
- Control and Effort
- Control and Fear
- Control and Work
- Perceived Control
- Sense of Control
- Cognitive Control and Coping
- Control and Well-Being
- Control and Aging
- Control and Pain
- Control and Illness
- Conclusions
- Evolutionary Origins and Functions of the Stress Response
- Glossary
- Utility of the Stress Response
- Stress and Other Defenses
- Situations in Which Stress Is Useful
- Phylogeny of the Stress Response
- Cross-Species Comparisons
- Cost-Benefit Trade-Offs
- Difficulties in Defining Stress
- How Does the Stress Response Help?
- Immediate Response
- Adrenal Cortical Response
- Association with Negative Events
- Cortisol as Protection against Other Aspects of Stress
- Adaptive Regulation of Stress Responsiveness
- Mismatch between Ancestral and Modern Environments
- Glossary
- Stress Responses Defined
- Comparative Anatomy and Physiology
- Glossary
- Stress Responses Defined
- Stress Responses in Invertebrates
- Neural
- Endocrine
- Stress Responses in Vertebrates
- Comparative Anatomy
- The neurohypophysis
- Corticotropes
- Catecholaminergic and corticosteroidogenic tissues
- Sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus
- Comparative Physiology
- Impact of stress on the regulation of fluid balance
- Renin-angiotensin system
- Vasotocin/vasopressin
- Impact of Stress on the Regulation of Energy Metabolism
- Glucocorticoids
- Catecholamines of chromaffin cell origin
- Inhibition of reproduction
- Impact of stress on the regulation of immune function
- Gene-Environment Interactions in Early Development
- Glossary
- Quantitative Genetics
- GE Interaction
- GE Correlation
- Molecular Genetics
- Behavioral Genomics and GE Interplay
- Future QTL Research on GE Interplay
- Further Reading
- Stress and CNS Arousal: Genomic Contributions
- Glossary
- Arousal
- Generalized Arousal
- Operational Definition and Quantitative Measures of Arousal
- Application of Information Theory to Understanding the Neurobiology of Arousal
- Neuroanatomical and Neurochemical Basis of Arousal
- Primordial Arousal-Promoting Neurons in the Arousal Crescent
- Ascending Arousal Activating Pathways
- Descending Arousal Pathways
- Neurochemicals Influencing Arousal
- Acetylcholine
- Noradrenaline/norepinephrine
- Serotonin
- Histamine
- Dopamine
- Orexin/hypocretin
- Prostaglandin D2
- Adenosine
- Steroid hormones
- Integration of Signals
- Amplified States of Arousal
- Sex and Fear
- Significance of Studying Arousal
- Disorders of Reduced Arousal
- Sleep disorders
- Extreme hypo-arousal states
- Disorders of hyperarousal
- Promising Future Lies Ahead in Arousal Research
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- II. HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY - ADRENAL AXIS
- A. General
- Neuroendocrine Systems
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
- Brief History
- General Anatomy and Development
- Neurohemal Junctions and Circumventricular Organs
- The Hypothalamo-Adenohypophysial System
- Neurohormonal Control of Anterior Pituitary Hormone Secretion
- Hypophysial Portal Vessels
- Hypothalamic Neurohormones
- Criteria for neurohormones and neurotransmitters
- Neurohormone receptors
- Clinical relevance
- Teleology of Neurohormonal Control
- The Hypothalamo-Neurohypophysial System
- Principles and Overview
- Function
- The Intermediate Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
- Model for Posttranslational Processing
- Melanocortins
- Pineal Gland: Melatonin and Photoperiodic Control of Circadian Rhythms
- Hormonal Effects on the Nervous System
- Psychoneuroendocrinology
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Anatomy of the HPA Axis
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Hypothalamus: The Neuroendocrine Paraventricular Nucleus
- Location
- Subdivisions
- Corticotropin Releasing Hormone Neuroendocrine Motor Neurons
- Afferent Input
- Neurohypophysis: Median Eminence and Infundibular Stalk
- Structure
- Organization of Blood Supply
- Adenohypophysis: Corticotropes in the Pars Distalis
- Adrenal Cortex: Zona Fasciculata
- Structure
- Blood Supply
- Innervation
- Further Reading
- Feedback Systems
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Overview
- Interaction between Negative Feedback and Circadian Rhythm in the HPA System
- Corticosteroid Feedback on the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland: Phase Differences
- Glucocorticoid Feedback Effects on Stress Neurohormone Biosynthesis
- Role of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide in Glucocorticoid Inhibition
- Role of Hippocampus and Amygdala in Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback
- Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback at the Pituitary Level
- Possible Role of 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase
- Functional Importance of Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback
- Clinical Manifestations of Disordered Glucocorticoid Feedback Regulation of the HPA System
- Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Failure of Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback
- Hypercortisolemia in Major Depression: Possibly due to an Altered Set Point in Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback
- Allostasis and Allostatic Load
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Stress Response: Neural and Feedback Regulation of the HPA Axis
- The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Direct Pathways Controlling HPA Axis Activation
- Brain Stem
- Lamina Terminalis System
- Hypothalamus
- Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
- Thalamus
- Local PVN Information Processing
- Indirect Paths to the PVN
- Hippocampus
- Medial Prefrontal Cortex
- Amygdala
- Lateral Septum
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Brain Stem
- Principles Governing Neurocircuit Regulation of the HPA Axis
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoid Negative Feedback
- Glossary
- Characteristics of Feedback in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis
- Two Receptors Mediate the Feedback Effects of Glucocorticoids
- Feedback regulation in the animal and its utility
- Temporally Discrete Effects of Corticosteroids on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Function
- Conditional Feedback in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Site(s) of Negative Feedback in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis
- Feedback in the Brain
- Feedback at the Pituitary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- B. Corticotropin Regulatory Factors and Receptors - Proopiomelanocortin - ACTH
- Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone and Urocortins: Binding Proteins and Receptors
- Discovery of CRF and Its Role in the Stress Response
- CRF: Founding Member of a Small Family of Neuropeptides
- CRF Family Neuropeptides Signal via One of Two CRF Receptors
- CRF-Binding Protein
- Central CRF Pathways Are Involved in Anxiety and Depression
- Feeding, Digestion, and Metabolism
- Cardiovascular Effects of Urocortins via CRFR2
- CRF and Pregnancy
- Summary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Urocortins
- Glossary
- Structure of Urocortins, CRF, and Related Peptides
- Distribution of Urocortins
- Central Nervous System
- Periphery
- Pharmacology of Urocortins
- CRF1 Receptors
- CRF2 Receptors
- CRF-Binding Protein (CRF-BP)
- Physiological and Behavioral Effects of Urocortins
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical (HPA) Axis
- Osmoregulation
- Energy Balance
- Gastrocolonic Motility and Function
- Cardiovascular Function
- Immune Function
- Reproductive Function
- Anxiety-Related Behavior
- Hearing
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptors
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptor Family
- Molecular Biology/Receptor Structure
- CRF1 Receptors
- CRF2 Receptors
- Endogenous Ligands
- Pharmacological Characteristics
- Ligand Binding Profile of CRF1 Receptors
- Ligand Binding Profile of CRF2 Receptors
- Guanine Nucleotide Characteristics of Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptors
- Second-Messenger Characteristics of Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptors
- Distribution of Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptor Subtypes
- Summary and Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptor Deficiency in Mice
- Glossary
- Corticotropin Releasing Factor Receptors and Ligands
- CRFR1-Deficient Mice Have a Defective Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response to Stress
- CRFR2-Deficient Mice Are Hypersensitive to Stress
- UCN1-Deficient Mice Have Increased Anxiety and Hearing Impairment
- CRFR1/CRFR2-Double-Deficient Animals Have a Blunted Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Stress Response
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticotropin Releasing Factor-Binding Protein
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Distribution
- Central Corticotropin Releasing Factor-Binding Protein
- Peripheral Corticotropin Releasing Factor-Binding Protein
- Properties
- Ligand Binding
- Physicochemical Properties
- Regulation of Gene Expression
- Role of Corticotropin Releasing Hormone-Binding Protein in the Stress Response
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Anti-CRF
- Glossary
- Pharmacology of Corticotropin-Releasing Factor/Urocortin Receptor Systems
- Nonneuroendocrine Distribution of CRF1 Receptors
- Selected Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor Antagonists
- Nonselective Peptide Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor Antagonists
- Subtype-Selective Peptide Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor Antagonists
- Small-Molecule CRF1 Receptor Antagonists
- Pharmacophore and selectivity
- Lipophilicity
- Therapeutic Potential of CRF1 Antagonists
- Endocrine Disorders
- Sympathoadrenomedullary Response
- Central Nervous System-Related Disorders
- Anxiety disorders
- Depression
- Gastrointestinal Disorders
- Urologic Disorders
- Pregnancy and Parturition
- Inflammatory States
- Inflammatory disorders
- Neurological insults
- Atopic/allergic disorders
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Pro-opimelancocortin (POMC)
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Discovery of POMC
- Sites and Tissue-Specific Processing of POMC
- Processing of POMC in the Anterior Pituitary
- Processing of POMC in the Pars Intermedia
- Molecular Basis of Tissue-Specific Processing
- Identification of the Enzymes Involved in POMC Processing
- Regulation of the Expression of the POMC Peptides
- Anterior Pituitary
- Pars Intermedia
- Posttranslational Modifications of POMC
- Disulfide Bridge Formation
- Glycosylation
- Phosphorylation
- Acetylation
- Biological Activity of the POMC Peptides
- Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
- N-Terminal Peptides and Adrenal Growth
- Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
- Role of MSH Peptides in the Regulation of Feeding
- gamma-MSH and Steroidogenesis
- Joining Peptide
- beta-Endorphin
- Conclusions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Beta-Endorphin
- Glossary
- Structure, Synthesis, and Localization
- beta-Endorphin and Neuroendocrine Responses
- beta-Endorphin and Stress-Induced Analgesia
- beta-Endorphin and the Immune System
- beta-Endorphin and Cardiovascular Responses
- beta-Endorphin and Stress-Induced Feeding and Other Behaviors
- Further Reading
- III. ADRENAL GLANDS
- A. Cortex - Corticosteroids
- Adrenal Cortex
- Glossary
- Structure of the Adrenal Cortex
- Morphology
- Circulation and Innervation
- Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
- Biosynthesis of the Corticosteroids
- Transport and Metabolism of Corticosteroids
- Control of Adrenocortical Secretion
- Control of Cortisol Secretion
- Control of Glomerulosa Function and Aldosterone Secretion
- Control of Adrenal Androgen Secretion
- Actions of Corticosteroids
- Mineralocorticoid Actions
- Glucocorticoid Actions
- Stress
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Adrenocortical Function, Factors Controlling Development Thereof
- Glossary
- Development of the Adrenal Cortex: From the Urogenital Ridge to the Definitive Adrenal Gland
- Transcription Factors Involved in Adrenocortical Development
- Steroidogenic Factor-1
- DAX1
- Other Factors
- Transcriptional Establishment of Adult Adrenocortical Function
- StAR
- CYP11B1 and CYP11B2
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoids, Overview
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Chemistry
- History
- Evolution
- Binding Proteins
- Transport Proteins
- Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Biosynthesis
- Actions
- Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Fat Metabolism
- Electrolyte and Water Metabolism
- Immunologic Function and Inflammation
- Effects on Bone and Connective Tissue
- Neuropsychiatric Effects
- Development
- Metabolism
- Steps Involved
- Factors Affecting Hepatic Metabolism
- Extrahepatic Metabolism of Glucocorticoids
- Absorption
- Regulation of Levels of Glucocorticoids
- The Limbic-Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Adrenocorticotropin
- Dexamethasone suppression test
- Insulin tolerance test
- Plasma Levels of Glucocorticoids under Various Conditions
- Levels of Glucocorticoids in Other Tissues
- Cortisol-Cortisone Interconversion
- Conditions of Glucocorticoid Excess
- Cushing's syndrome
- Acute stress
- Chronic stress
- Major depression
- Conditions of Glucocorticoid Deficiency
- Adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease)
- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (genetic defects in cortisol synthesis)
- Measurement
- Competitive Protein-Binding Assays
- Assays Using Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Radioreceptorassays and Radioenzymaticassays
- Radioimmunoassays
- Fluorescence Immunoassays
- Chemiluminescence Immunoassays
- Determinations in Various Body Fluids
- Plasma
- Urine
- Saliva
- Indirect Methods
- Antiglucocorticoids
- Inhibitors of steroidogenesis
- Inhibitor of Glucocorticoid Receptor
- Uses of Glucocorticoids and their Inhibitors as Therapeutic Agents
- Therapeutic Uses of Glucocorticoids
- Uses of Antiglucocorticoids as Therapeutic Agents
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticosteroids and Stress
- Glossary
- Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, and Stress
- Basal and Stress-Induced Glucocorticoid Levels: Functions in Stress?
- Corticosteroid Receptors
- Permissive and Suppressive Glucocorticoid Actions
- Metabolic Actions
- Cardiovascular Actions
- Actions on Electrolyte and Fluid Volume Balance
- Anti-inflammatory and Immunosuppressive Actions
- Actions on the Central Nervous System
- Effects via Cytokines and Other Mediators
- Unified View of the Protective Roles of Glucocorticoids in Stress
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoids, Effects of Stress on
- Glossary
- Mechanisms Controlling Glucocorticoid Secretion in Stress
- The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Steroidogenesis
- Synthesis and Secretion of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
- Hypothalamic Control of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Secretion
- Corticotropin releasing hormone
- Arginine vasopressin
- Other hypothalamic factors
- Stress-Induced Activation of Corticotropin Releasing Hormone/Arginine vasopressin Neurons
- Negative Feedback Control of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Role of glucocorticoids
- Phases of steroid feedback
- Mechanisms of glucocorticoid feedback
- Short loop and ultrashort loop feedback mechanisms
- Glucocorticoid Secretion in Repeated or Sustained Stress
- Age- and Gender-Related Changes in the Stress Response
- Development
- Perinatal Programming of the Stress Response
- Sexual Dimorphism in Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Function
- Stress Responses in the Aging
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Steroid Hydroxylases
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme: CYP11A1
- 17-Hydroxylase: CYP17A1
- 21-Hydroxylase: CYP21A2
- 11beta-Hydroxylases: CYP11B1 and CYP11B2
- Aromatase: CYP19A1
- Steroid Catabolism by CYPs
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases
- Glossary
- Definition: 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase
- The Mineralocorticoid Receptor Paradox
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 in the Adult Central Nervous System
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 in the Developing Central Nervous System
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 and Fetal Programming
- Programming the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Behavior
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 in the Brain
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 and Brain Aging
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Cogenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
- Glossary
- Classification
- Molecular Genetics
- Biochemical Abnormalities
- Clinical Features
- Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
- Abnormal genitalia
- Salt-wasting crisis
- Virilization and precocious puberty
- Delayed puberty
- Primary amenorrhea
- Impaired fertility
- Nonclassic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
- Precocious puberty
- Hypertension
- Acne and hirsutism in the female
- Impaired fertility and menstrual disorders
- 17alpha-Hydroxylase Deficiency
- Diagnostic Investigations
- Treatment of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Cushing's Syndrome, Medical Aspects
- Glossary
- Epidemiology
- Etiology
- Pathophysiology
- Clinical Picture
- Laboratory Findings
- Radiographic Findings
- Treatment
- Cushing's Disease
- Transsphenoidal surgery (TSS)
- Pituitary X-radiation with or without mitotane
- Pharmacotherapy
- Bilateral adrenalectomy
- Ectopic ACTH-Dependent CS
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Adrenal Insufficiency
- Glossary
- Definition and Etiology of Adrenal Insufficiency
- Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
- Treatment
- Additional Aspects and Implications for Stress
- Further Reading
- B. Corticosteroid Receptors
- Steroid Hormone Receptors
- Glossary
- Historical Development
- Steroid Hormone Receptors Form a Subgroup within the Nuclear Receptor Family
- Domain Structure of Steroid Hormone Receptors
- Individual Family Members
- Heterooligomeric Complex and Ligand and DNA Binding
- Heterooligomeric Complex
- Ligand Binding
- DNA Binding
- Activation of Transcription
- Coactivators
- Corepressors
- Interactions with Sequence-Specific Transcription Factors
- Interaction with Chromatin Factors
- Involvement of the Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Stress Response
- Cross-Talk with Other Signal Transduction Pathways
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Corticosteroid Receptor Genes: Functional Dissection in Mice
- Glossary
- Classic Inactivation of Glucocorticoid Receptor and Mineralocorticoid Receptor Genes
- Glucocorticoid Receptor Is Absolutely Required for Survival
- Inactivation of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor Gene Leads to Type I Pseudohypoaldosteronism
- Tissue-Specific Corticosteroid Receptor Genes Inactivation
- Tissue-Specific Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Inactivation
- Liver-Specific Glucocorticoid Receptor Inactivation Results in Body-Growth Deficiency
- The Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene and Pancreas Programming
- The Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene and Mammary Glands
- The Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene and T Cells
- Inactivation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene in the Brain
- Tissue-Specific Mineralocorticoid Receptor Gene Inactivation
- Function-Selective Glucocorticoid Receptor Mutation
- Modifying Glucocorticoid Receptor and Mineralocorticoid Receptor Gene Dosage in an Organism or Cell Type
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticosteroid Receptors
- Glossary
- Corticosteroid Receptor Properties
- Activation of Corticosteroid Receptors
- Corticosteroid Receptor Diversity in Pituitary and Brain
- Structure
- Pharmacology
- Distribution
- Corticosteroid Receptor Variants
- Regulation of Transcription through Corticosteroid Receptors
- Transactivation via Glucocorticoid-Responsive Elements
- Repression via Negative Glucocorticoid-Responsive Elements
- Repression via Protein-Protein Interactions
- Cellular Effects of Corticosteroid Hormone Activation
- Differential Effects at the Level of a Single Structure: Mineralocorticoid and Glucocorticoid Receptors in the Hippocampus
- Effects on Neurotransmitter Systems
- Serotonin: Coordinate Regulation via Mineralocorticoid and Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Catecholamines
- Neuropeptide Systems
- Cellular Viability
- Chronic Absence of Corticosteroids
- Chronic Exposure to High Corticosteroid Levels
- Behavior and the Stress Response
- Corticosteroid Receptors and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Control
- Hippocampal Mineralocorticoid and Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Indirect Effects
- Control over Learning and Memory via Mineralocorticoid and Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Corticosteroid Receptors in Pathology
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Mineralocorticoid Receptor Polymorphisms
- Glossary
- Mineralocorticoid Receptor Gene
- Genetic Variants in the Mineralocorticoid Receptor
- Genetic Variability
- Variants of the Human Mineralocorticoid Receptor Gene
- Splicing variants
- Cardiovascular control
- Stress responsiveness
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Membrane Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Glossary
- Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Glucocorticoid Receptors in Liver
- Glucocorticoid Receptors in Lymphocytes
- Glucocorticoid Receptors in Adrenal Gland
- Glucocorticoid Receptors in Pituitary
- Glucocorticoid Receptors in Brain
- Glucocorticoid Transport Proteins
- Corticosteroid-Binding Globulins
- Signal Transduction by Membrane Glucocorticoid Receptors
- Modulation of Calcium Signaling
- Other Signaling Pathways
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin (Transcortin)
- Glossary
- Discovery and Definition of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Biological Role of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Physical Characteristics of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Structure
- Biosynthesis
- Degradation of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Temperature Dependence
- Affinity
- pH
- Electrophoresis
- Relationship to Albumin Binding
- Effect of Reducing Agents
- Binding Specificity
- Mammals
- Progesterone-binding globulin of guinea pig
- Marsupials
- Synthetic steroids
- Physiological Variation
- Pregnancy
- Fetus and Neonate
- Hereditary Deficiency
- Changes with Diet
- Possible Fatal Drop in Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Response of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin to Stress
- Response of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin to Other Pathological Factors in Humans
- Binding of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin to Cell Membranes
- Measurement of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin
- Use of Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin to Measure Steroids by Competitive Protein Binding
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Expression Profiling of Stress Responsive Gene Patterns
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Corticosteroids Modify Gene Expression
- Effects of Stress on the Hippocampus
- Large-Scale Gene Expression Profiling
- Model Systems of Stress
- Stress-Responsive Gene Patterns in Brain
- Future Perspectives
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- IV. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - ADRENAL MEDULLA
- Adrenal Medulla
- Glossary
- Biosynthesis and Release of Adrenal Medullary Catecholamines
- Stress Effects on the Biosynthetic Capacity of the Adrenal Medulla
- Plasma Epinephrine and Stress
- Effects of Acute Immobilization Stress on Adrenal Catecholamine Synthesizing Enzymes
- Effects of Repeated Immobilization Stress on Adrenal Catecholamine-Synthesizing Enzymes
- Factors Influencing Gene Transcription in the Adrenal Medulla during Stress
- The Splanchnic Nerve
- Modulation of Transcription
- Summary and Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Autonomic Nervous System: General Overview
- Introduction
- Synthesis
- Dopamine beta-Hydroxylase
- Dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency
- Menkes Disease
- Tetrahydrobiopterin
- Metabolism
- Monoamine Oxidase
- MAO-A and-B deficiency (and Norrie disease gene)
- Catechol-O-Methyltransferase
- Reuptake
- Norepinephrine Transporter Dysfunction
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Glossary
- Background
- Autonomic Nervous System Compared to the Somatic Motor System
- Autonomic Nervous System Has Three Branches
- Sympathetic Branch
- Parasympathetic Branch
- Enteric Branch
- Neurons and Neurotransmitters
- Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
- Sympathetic Division
- Parasympathetic Division
- Autonomic Regulation of Specific Organs
- Local Regulation of Autonomic Function
- Physical and Psychological Stress
- Summary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Sympathoadrenal System: Neural Arm of the Stress Response
- Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons
- The Sympathoadrenal System
- The Sympathoneural System
- Premotor Sympathetic Neurons
- Sensory Arms of the Sympathetic Nervous System
- Sympathetic Nervous System in the Organization of Stress Response
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Sympathetic Nervous System
- Glossary
- Historical and Conceptual Overview
- Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Homeostasis
- Norepinephrine: The Sympathetic Neurotransmitter
- Norepinephrine Synthesis
- Norepinephrine Storage
- Norepinephrine Release
- Norepinephrine Disposition
- See Also the Following Article
- Further Reading
- Adrenaline
- Glossary
- The Effects of Adrenaline
- Measuring Adrenaline Levels
- Psychosocial Determinants of Adrenaline Variation
- Laboratory Studies of the Determinants of Adrenaline Secretion
- Adrenaline Variation in Everyday Life
- Influences of habitual health-related behaviors
- Adrenaline variation across societies
- Adrenaline variation in everyday working life
- Individual Differences in SAM Reactivity
- Sex Differences
- Age
- Individuals Experiencing Chronic Stress
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Adrenergic Receptors
- Introduction
- alpha1-Adrenoceptors
- alpha2-Adrenoceptors
- beta-Adrenoceptors
- Conclusions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Stress and Parasympathetic Control
- Conclusions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Arousal Theory and Stress Responses
- The Mammalian Nervous System Is a Product of Evolution
- Polyvagal Theory: Three Phylogenetic Systems Related to Stress Reactivity
- The Vagal Brake: Parasympathetic Regulation of the 'Stress' Response
- The Social Engagement System
- Vagal Regulation of the HPA Axis
- Immune Function
- Oxytocin/Vasopressin
- Phylogenetic Approach to the Study of Stress
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Electrodermal Activity
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Methodology
- Recording Techniques
- Quantification
- Biological Mechanisms
- Psychological Applications
- Attention and Information Processing
- Emotion
- Stress
- Further Reading
- Febrile Response
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Thermal Control in Endotherms
- Temperature Set Point
- Thermosensitive Neurons
- Fever and Thermosensitivity
- Endogenous Pyrogens and Fever Induction
- Exogenous Pyrogens
- Expression of Endogenous Pyrogens and their Receptors in the Hypothalamus
- Humoral Versus Neuronal Mediators of Fever Induction
- Role of Prostaglandins in Fever
- Stress and Fever Induction
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- V. INTEGRATIVE ASPECTS OF STRESS RESPONSE
- Genetic Ploymorphisms in Stress Response
- Glossary
- Genes and the Stress Responses
- Polymorphisms of Genes in the Autonomic Stress Response Pathway
- Dopamine beta-Hydroxylase
- Phenylethanolamine N-Methyl Transferase
- Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Receptors
- alpha1-Adrenergic receptors
- alpha2-Adrenergic receptors
- beta-Adrenergic receptors
- beta2-Adrenergic receptor
- beta3-Adrenergic receptor
- Norepinephrine Transporter
- Polymorphisms of Genes in the Neuroendocrine Stress Response Pathway
- The Glucocorticoid Receptor
- 11-beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Enzymes
- Loci Whose Polymorphisms Interact with Stressful Influences in Mediating Behavioral Outcomes
- The Serotonin Transporter
- Monoamine Oxidase Type A
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
- The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- The Paraventricular Nucleus of the Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Corticotropes
- Adrenal Zona Fasciculata
- CBG (Transcortin) Binding
- Inhibition of the HPA Axis by GC
- Distinctive HPA Axis Drivers
- Periodic/Circadian Drivers of the HPA Axis
- The suprachiasmatic nuclei
- The food-entrainable oscillator
- Outline placeholder
- Homeostatic Inflow: Systemically Responsive Networks Driving the HPA Axis
- The arcuate NPY/melanocortin system
- Systemic threats: The medullary NE/E/NPY system
- The Hypothalamic Visceromotor Pattern Generator
- Psychogenic Networks Driving the HPA Axis
- GCs in Central Motive States and Central Plasticity
- Corticotropin-Releasing Factor
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine
- Endogenous Opioid Peptides
- Memory
- Neuronal Remodeling
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Central Stress Neurocircuits
- Glossary
- Overview of Stress: Inputs, Outputs, and Evaluative Processes
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical (HPA) Axis
- Initiation of the Stress Response
- Homeostatic Regulation: Systemic, Physical Stressors
- Fight or Flight Response: Processive, Psychological Stressors
- Termination of the Stress Response
- Neuronal Regulation
- Hormonal Regulation
- Concluding Remarks
- Glossary
- Further Reading
- Brain and Brain Regions
- Glossary
- Introduction - Stress and the Brain
- Brain Regions Concerned with Processing Stress-Related Information
- Sensory Processing
- Spinal cord
- Hindbrain
- Thalamus
- Motor Regions
- Spinal cord
- Hindbrain
- Hypothalamus
- Integrative Regions
- Hindbrain
- Hippocampus
- Septal complex
- Amygdala
- Bed nuclei of the stria terminalis
- Cortex
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: Integration of Adaptive Responses to Stress
- Introduction
- The CRF Family of Signaling Molecules
- The CAS and Its Role in Adaptive Responses to Stress
- Issues in Understanding CAS Activation by Central Peptide Administration and Stress
- CRFR Protein Expression
- Novel Receptors?
- Receptor Cross-Talk
- Interaction of CRFR- and CRFR2-Dependent Mechanisms
- Other Ligand-Binding Proteins
- Role of Ucns
- Significance
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Amygdala
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Multiple Sources of Input: Afferents to Amygdala
- Nucleus Tractus Solitarius
- Thalamus
- Periaqueductal Gray
- Temporal, Insular, and Parietal Cortex
- Frontal Cortex
- Summary
- Variegated Outputs: Efferents from Amygdala
- Hypothalamus
- Periaqueductal Gray
- Brain Stem
- Cortex
- Hippocampal Formation
- Summary
- Conclusions and Functions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Acute Stress Response: Experimental
- Glossary
- Overview of Acute Stress Responses
- Stress-Responsive Neuroendocrine Systems
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Growth Axis
- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis
- Prolactin
- Immune System
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Types of Acute Stressors
- Hypoglycemia
- Hemorrhage
- Hypoxia
- Pain
- Cold
- Footshock
- Immobilization
- Summary and Conclusions
- Further Reading
- Chronic (Repeated) Stress: Consequences, Adaptations
- Chronic Stress
- Chronic Stress and Recruitment of a Limbic Network That Biases Subsequent Autonomic, Behavioral, and Neuroendocrine Responses...
- Habituation of HPA Responses with Time after Inescapable Stressors
- Repeated Restraint
- Why Habituation?
- Where in the Brain Does Habituation to Restraint Occur?
- How Does Habituation Occur?
- Facilitation to Novel Stimuli Occurs with Chronic Stress
- What Does Facilitation Look Like?
- Facilitated Responses Require Sustained or Intermittently Repeated Stressors and Elevated Corticosterone Concentrations
- How Does Facilitation Occur?
- The Up- and Downsides of HPA Responses to Chronic or Repeated Challenge
- The Upside
- The Downside
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoids, Role in Stress
- Glossary
- Secretion in Stress, Delivery to Target Tissues, and Molecular Basis of Action
- Secretion of Glucocorticoids in Stress
- Delivery of Glucocorticoids to Their Target Cells and Receptors
- Molecular Basis of Glucocorticoid Action
- Corticosteroid Receptors
- Functions of Glucocorticoids in Stress
- General Considerations
- Glucocorticoids and the Host Defense System
- Metabolic Actions of Glucocorticoids
- Carbohydrate metabolism
- Lipid metabolism
- Protein metabolism
- Skeleton and Connective Tissue
- Skeleton
- Connective tissue
- Cardiovascular
- Mood and Behavior
- Reproductive Function
- Development
- Other Actions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Norepinephrine: CNS Pathways and Neurophysiology
- Norepinephrine Cell Groups and Pathways
- Locus Coeruleus
- Locus coeruleus efferent projections
- Locus coeruleus afferents
- Norepinephrine release
- Locus coeruleus impulse activity
- Non-LC Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Cell Groups
- Non-LC NE/E projections
- Non-LC impulse activity
- Stress
- Summary for non-LC systems
- Postsynaptic Actions of Norepinephrine
- Modulatory effects of NE on single neurons
- Cellular mechanisms of NE action
- Effects of locus coeruleus output on neuronal and neural circuit response properties
- Functional and Clinical Implications
- Further Reading
- Sympathetic Noradrenergic and Adrenomedullary Hormonal Systems in Stress and Distress
- The Sympathoadrenal System
- Stress and Science
- Characteristics of Distress
- Homeostasis versus Allostasis
- Allostatic Load and Chronic Disease
- Distinct Roles of the Sympathetic Noradrenergic and Adrenomedullary Hormonal Systems
- Scientific Integrative Medicine
- Further Reading
- Blood-Brain Barrier, Stress and
- Glossary
- Structure and Function
- Disturbances in Endogenous Stressors
- Infection and Inflammation
- Hypoxia/Ischemia Reperfusion Injury
- Hypercapnia and Acidosis
- Osmotic Stress
- Diabetes
- Hypertension
- Disturbances in Exogenous Stressors
- Smoking
- Alcohol
- Immobilization and Restraint Stress
- Steroids
- Thermal Stress: Hypothermia, Hyperthermia, and Ultrasound Waves
- Other Stressors
- BBB and Aging
- Implications and Clinical Correlations
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Multi Drug Resistance P Glycoprotein and other Transporters
- Glossary
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Superfamily
- Multidrug Resistance Transporter Proteins
- P-Glycoprotein
- Multidrug Resistance-Related Protein Family
- Breast Cancer Resistance Protein
- Multidrug Resistance Transporter Proteins and Pharmacokinetics
- Oral Absorption
- Brain Distribution
- Drug Excretion
- Functional Genetic Polymorphism
- Other Physiological Functions of Multidrug Resistance and Other ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters
- Defense against Oxidative Stress, Cancer, and Inflammation
- Lipid Metabolism
- Antigen Presentation
- Regulation of Insulin Secretion
- Chloride Secretion
- Potassium Channel Regulation
- Bile Salt Transport
- Multidrug Resistance: ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Modulation and Regulation of Expression
- Modulation
- Regulation of Expression
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Social Stress, Animal Models of
- Glossary
- Social Stress Models
- Limbic Stress Processive Pathways
- Adaptation to Stress
- Transmitter Systems Adaptation
- Cholinergic System
- Monoaminergic System under Stress
- CRH Systems Adaptation
- Vasopressin Systems Adaptation
- VI. CIRCADIAN AND SEASONAL RHYTHMS
- Cortisol Awakening Response
- Glossary
- Definition
- Origins of the Cortisol Awakening Response
- Measurement of the Cortisol Awakening Response
- Factors Affecting the Cortisol Awakening Response
- Gender and Age
- Time of Waking
- Sleep Duration and Quality
- Smoking
- Significance of Cortisol Awakening Response for Stress Research
- Relationship with Health Outcomes
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Circadian Rhythms, Genetics of
- Glossary
- The Molecular Circadian Clock
- The Molecular Clock Is Not Confined to the SCN
- Disruption of Molecular Clock Leads to Tissue and Organismal Dysfunction
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Foof Shift Effect
- Glossary
- Endogenous Circadian Clocks
- Physiological Correlates of Entrainment by Meals
- Shift Work and Jet Lag
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Seasonal Changes in Stress Responses
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Seasonal Energetic Adaptations
- Seasonal Adjustments in Glucocorticoid Secretion
- Why Are Stress Responses Seasonally Variable?
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Seasonal Rhythms
- Glossary
- Evidence for Seasonal Glucocorticoid Rhythms
- Mechanisms Regulating Annual Rhythms of Glucocorticoids
- Why Do Seasonal Glucocorticoid Rhythms Exist?
- Energy Mobilization Hypothesis
- Behavior Hypothesis
- Preparative Hypothesis
- Adaptive Significance
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Circadian Clock Genes as Modulators of Sensitivity to Genotoxic Stress
- Adaptive Significance
- See Also the Following Articles
- Glossary
- Anticancer Therapy and Genotoxic Stress
- The Circadian Clock System: A Universal Timing Mechanism
- Circadian Clock System Modulates in Vivo Response to Genotoxic Treatments
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- VII. NEURONAL PLASTICITY MEMORY
- Stress and Neuronal Plasticity
- Introduction
- Adaptive Structural Plasticity
- Neurogenesis in the Dentate Gyrus
- Remodeling of Dendrites
- Mechanisms of Structural Remodeling
- What about Permanent Damage as a Result of Stress?
- Stress-Induced Changes in the Prefrontal Cortex and Amygdala
- Behavioral Effects of Acute and Chronic Stress
- Relationship to Anxiety and Mood Disorders
- Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Plasticity, and Activity-Dependent Regulation of Gene Expression
- See Also the Following Articles
- Introduction
- What Are the Specific Genes Induced during Synaptic or Behavioral Plasticity?
- What Are the Cellular Mechanisms for Regulating Activity-Induced Gene Expression?
- What Are the Cellular Processes That These Genes Act on to Stabilize Long-Term Memories?
- Are These Activity-Induced Genes Required for the Stabilization of Long-Term Memory?
- Summary and Future Directions
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory: the Positive and the Negative
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Effects of Stress on Different Memory Systems
- Declarative Memory
- Acute effects
- Chronic effects
- Procedural (Nondeclarative) Memory
- Working Memory
- Classical Conditioning (Associative Learning)
- Clinical Implications
- Summary and Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Further Reading
- Glucocorticoids - Adverse Effects on the Nervous System
- Glossary
- Background
- GCs and the Function and Structure of Hippocampal Neurons
- GCs and the Birth of Hippocampal Neurons
- GCs and the Death of Hippocampal Neurons
- GC Endangerment
- GC Neurotoxicity
- GCs and the Health of the Human Hippocampus
- Cushing's Syndrome
- Exogenous GC Administration
- Clinical Depression
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Hippocampus, Corticosteroid Effects on
- Glossary
- Mechanism of Corticosteroid Action
- Targets for Corticosteroid Action
- Ion Channels
- Neurotransmitter Responses
- Changes in Network Properties
- Cellular Effects after Chronic Hypo- or Hypercorticism
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Memory and Stress
- Glossary
- Emotion, Stress, and Memory
- Emotion and Stress: Two Different Entities?
- Memory for Emotionally Arousing Events
- Memory for Central versus Peripheral Details
- Immediate versus Delayed Memory for Emotional Events
- Possible Mechanisms Underlying the Increased Memory for Emotionally Arousing Events
- Memory after Stress
- Influences of Acute Stress on Subsequent Memory Function and Possible Psychological Effects Underlying These Influences
- Effects of Acute Stress on Subsequent Memory Function and Possible Physiological Mechanisms Underlying These Effects
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Neurogenesis
- Glossary
- Development of the Dentate Gyrus
- Stress Effects on Neurogenesis
- Adrenal Steroids Affect Neurogenesis through NMDA Receptors
- Functional Implications of Stress Effects on Neurogenesis
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Remodelling of Neuronal Networks by Stress
- Glossary
- Early Ideas about the Stress Response
- Stress Circuits
- Activation of Brain Systems
- Structural Plasticity of the Adult Brain
- Remodeling of Brain Cells by Stress
- Stress Suppresses Neurogenesis in the Adult Dentate Gyrus
- Plasticity of Astrocytes
- Plastic Changes of Brain Cells Are Reflected by Alterations in Gene Expression
- Structural Changes Are Reversible
- Conclusions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- VIII. STRESS - INDUCED/RELATED PATHOLOGY
- A. Immune/Inflammatory Responses
- Immune System-Neuroendocrine Interactions
- Introduction
- Possible Pathways by Which Circulating IL-1beta Signals the Brain
- Biosynthesis of PGs
- PGE2 Sites of Action
- Functional Circuits by Intraparenchymal PGE2
- Alternative Pathways
- Concluding Remarks
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Immune Response
- Glossary
- Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses
- Recognition of Pathogens and Other Antigens
- Broadly Reactive Receptors
- Antigen-Specific Receptors
- Generation of the Immune Response
- The Anatomy of the Immune Response
- Protective Immune Response
- Avoidance of Harmful Immune Responses
- Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Autotolerance
- Glossary
- Self-Tolerance Is Executed through the Deletion and Regulation of Autoreactive Lymphocytes
- Cells Exposed to Stressful Stimuli Upregulate the Expression of Stress Proteins
- Tolerance to Stress Proteins Is Incomplete
- Endogenous hsp60 Can Be Processed and Presented to Antigen-Primed T Cells
- Oxidative Stress Influences Several Components of the Immune System Pertaining to Self-Tolerance and Autoimmunity
- Neural Immune Interactions and Their Relevance to Autoimmunity
- Immunoregulatory and Therapeutic Approaches Based on Biomolecules and Intracellular Pathways Involved in the Stress Response
- Further Reading
- Macrophages
- Glossary
- Origin and Function of Monocytes/Macrophages
- Phagocytosis and Microbicidal Functions
- Cytokine Mediation of Macrophage Response
- Toll-like Receptors
- Stress and Monocytes/Macrophages
- Substance P as a Mediator of Stress Response
- Effect of Stress on Monocytopoiesis
- Effect of Stress on Monocyte/Macrophage Function
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Macrophage Antimycobacterial Activity, Effects of Stress on
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Innate Resistance against Mycobacteria
- Specific Immune Response to Mycobacterial Infection
- Stress Influences Mycobacterial Infection
- HPA Axis Effects on Mycobacterial Infection
- Sympathetic Nervous System Effects on Mycobacterial Infection
- Summary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Immunity
- Glossary
- T-Cell Proliferation
- Rafts
- Membrane Markers of Cell Activation
- Traversal of the Cell Cycle
- T-Cell Memory - Cytokine Patterns
- Migration
- Regulation
- Membrane and Molecular Level
- Cellular Level
- Clinical Implications
- Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Further Reading
- Immune Suppression
- Glossary
- Allostasis
- Type I and Type II Allostatic Responses
- Type I
- Type II
- Oral Lichen Planus
- Chronic Pain
- Mucositis
- The Allostatic Modulation of Immune Suppression
- The Stroop Test
- The Cold Pressor Test
- The Dexamethasone-Suppression Test
- Alcohol and Substance Abuse
- Experimental Findings
- T Cell Anergy and Apoptosis
- Calmodulin
- The Apoptosis Process
- Mitochondria
- beta-Amyloid
- A New Strategy: Molecular Cartography
- Further Reading
- Autoimmunity
- Glossary
- How Can an Autoimmune Disease Be Initiated and How Can Stress Contribute to the Process?
- Failure to Eliminate Autoreactive B Lymphocytes
- Failure to Eliminate Autoreactive T Lymphocytes
- Alteration of Cell Regulation
- Increased Susceptibility to Infection
- If Stress Suppresses Immune Function, How Does Stress Predispose to the Development of Autoimmune Disease?
- The Relationship of Stress to Specific Autoimmune Diseases
- Psoriasis
- Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
- Graves' Thyroid Disease
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
- Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)
- Summation
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Cytokines
- Glossary
- Relationships between Stress andImmunity
- Stress Defined
- Impact of Stress on Health
- Role of Cytokines in the Normal Immune Response
- Impact of Stress on Neuroendocrine and Immune Function
- Impact of Stress and Behavior on Cytokine Expression
- Inflammatory Cytokines
- Immunoregulatory Cytokines
- Effector Cytokine Networks
- Impact of Cytokines on Stress and Behavior
- Effects of Cytokines on the Central Nervous System
- Effects of Cytokines on Neuroendocrine Networks
- Effects of Cytokines on Behavior
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Cytokines, Stress, and Depression
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Psychological Stress and Activation of the Endocrine System
- Stress and the Role of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors
- Depression and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis
- The Chronic Effects of Stress: Depression and Neurotoxicity
- Changes in Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Depression
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Prostaglandins
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Characteristics of Prostaglandins
- Background
- Synthesis of Prostaglandins
- Phospholipase A2
- Cyclo-oxygenases
- Nature and Functions of Prostaglandins
- Pathological functions of prostaglandins and connections with stress
- Some physiological functions of prostaglandins with connections to stress
- Stimulation of Prostaglandin Synthesis in Stress
- Assay for Prostaglandins in Stress
- Types of stress and measurement of prostaglandins
- Inhibitors of prostaglandins
- Prostaglandins in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Stress Hormone Flow
- Prostaglandins in the Initiation of Stress Response
- Stress and Antistress: Prostaglandins versus Glucocorticosteroids
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Infection
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Central Nervous-Immune-Endocrine System Interactions
- Stress Hormones and Infections
- Outline placeholder
- Bacterial Infections and Steroids
- Virus Infections and Stress
- Discussion and Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Inflammation
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Immune and Inflammatory Cells in Acute Inflammation: Role of Endothelium and Adhesion Molecules
- Inflammation, Artherosclerosis, and Cardiovascular Diseases
- Inflammation and Cancer
- Inflammation and Metabolic Syndrome
- Inflammation and Respiratory Diseases
- Inflammation and Joint Diseases
- Inflammation and Sepsis
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Sepsis, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, and Glucocorticoid Resistance
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
- Systemic Inflammation-Associated Glucocorticoid Resistance
- Nuclear Factor kappaB and Glucocorticoid Receptor alpha Interaction
- Systemic Inflammation-Induced Glucocorticoid Resistance Can Be Improved with Prolonged Glucocorticoid Supplementation
- Findings of Randomized Trials
- Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Further Reading
- B. Stress - Feeding - Obesity - Metabolic Syndrome
- Obesity, Stress and
- Glossary
- Stress-Eating
- Stress-Eating and Obesity
- Mechanism of Stress-Eating
- Further Reading
- Feeding Circuitry (and Neurochemistry)
- Glossary
- Neural Circuitry Involved in Food Intake
- Interactions with the Stress Circuitry
- Effects of Stress on Food Intake
- Effects of Feeding (or Fasting) on Stress Responses
- Concluding Remarks
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Leptin, Adiponectin, Resistin, Ghrelin
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Adipose Tissue
- Leptin
- Adiponectin
- Resistin
- Gastrointestinal Tract: Ghrelin
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Orexin
- Glossary
- Discovery of the Orexins
- Orexins and the Stress Response
- Orexins and Cardiovascular Function
- Cellular mechanisms of action
- Physiological relevance of the pharmacological effects of orexin on cardiovascular function
- Neuroendocrine Actions of the Orexins
- Orexin and the hypothlamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
- Orexin and prolactin secretion
- Orexin and Stress-Related Behaviors
- Non-Central Nervous System Sites of Orexin Action Related to Stress
- Summary and Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Food Intake and Stress, Non-Human
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Nonhormonal Responses to Nutritional Stress
- Hormonal Responses to Nutritional Stress
- Nutritional Stress and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- General Considerations
- The Effect of Fasting versus Food Restriction on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity
- Pregnancy and Lactation
- Nutritional Stress and Negative Feedback Mechanisms of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
- Nonadrenal Production of Glucocorticoids in Obesity
- The Role of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in the Predisposition to Obesity
- Neuronal Systems Underlying Endocrine Perturbations Induced by Nutritional Stress
- Possible Hormonal Signals Involved in Mediating Nutritional Stress
- Leptin
- Ghrelin
- Insulin
- Further Reading
- Cholesterol and Lipoproteins
- Glossary
- Structure and Function of Cholesterol and Lipoproteins
- Environmental Influences on Lipid Concentrations and Lipid Variability
- Chronic Stress Mechanisms of Lipid Variability
- Behavioral Influences
- Hormonal Influences
- Acute Stress Mechanisms of Lipid Variability
- Hemoconcentration Influences
- Metabolic Influences
- Interventions to Reduce Stress-Related Increases in Lipids
- Clinical Implications of Variations in Lipids
- Further Reading
- Stress, Insulin Resistance, and Type II Diabetes
- Glossary
- The Stress Response
- The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
- The Sympathetic Nervous System
- Consequences of Chronic Stress
- Depression and Diabetes
- Stressful Life Events and Diabetes
- Inflammation and Diabetes
- Conclusion
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Metabolic Syndrome
- Glossary
- What Is Metabolic Syndrome?
- Origins of MetS
- MetS and Environmental Stress
- Development of MetS in Childhood
- MetS and Inherited Temperament
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Circadian Metabolic Rhythms Regulated by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- Organisms Exhibit Metabolic Rhythms: Daily and Annual Rhythms
- The SCN Generates Metabolic Rhythms
- How Does the SCN Induce Rhythms in Metabolic Systems?
- The Endocrine System
- Autonomic Output
- Integration of Glucose Rhythms and Energy Balance
- Interaction of the SCN with Hypothalamic Nuclei Involved in Energy Balance
- Sensing energy stores
- Interaction with Other Hypothalamic Nuclei
- What is the Relevance of Metabolic Rhythms?
- Anticipation of Changes in Energy Requirement
- Metabolic Rhythms without the SCN
- Food Entrainment
- The Metabolic Syndrome: A Brain Disease?
- Ignoring the Signal of the Clock
- Further Reading
- Metabolic Syndrome and Sleep
- Introduction
- Sleep Loss and Metabolic Syndrome: Interacting Epidemics - Epidemiological Studies
- Sleep Loss and Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome: Interacting Epidemics - Clinical Research Studies
- Sleep Loss and Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome: Interacting Epidemics - Evidence from Animal Studies
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Fetal Stress
- Glossary
- Fetal Programming and Fetal Origins of Adult Disease
- Mediators of the Predictive Adaptive Response
- Fetal Distress - Clinical Evaluation
- Fetal Growth Restriction (FGR)
- Diagnostic Approach to Fetal Growth Restriction
- Preterm Birth
- Further Reading
- C. Cardiovascular System and Disorders
- Cardiovascular System and Stess
- Glossary
- Background
- Historical Perspective
- Methodological Comments
- What Is a Relevant Stressor?
- Neurohormonal Mechanisms
- The Sympathoadrenal System
- Cholinergic Mechanisms
- Other Mediators and Mechanisms
- Baroreflexes and Blood Pressure Regulation
- Human Studies of Cardiovascular Responses to MentalStress
- Cardiac Responses
- Peripheral Vascular Responses
- Limb blood flow
- Renal blood flow
- Is Epinephrine an Important Stress Hormone?
- Pathophysiological Aspects
- Further Reading
- Autonomic Nervous System: Central Cardiovascular Control
- Introduction
- Medulla Oblongata
- Primary Afferent Neurons of the Arterial Baroreflex
- Solitary Tract Nucleus - Arterial Baroreflex Second-Order Neurons
- Cardiac Parasympathetic Neurons
- Spinal Cord
- Higher Centers
- Clinical Implications
- Further Reading
- Circadian Rhythm Effects on Cardiovascular and Other Stress-Related Events
- Glossary
- Chronobiology and Circadian Rhythms
- Circadian Rhythm of Cardiovascular Events
- Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction
- Stroke
- Rupture/Dissection of Aortic Aneurysm
- Circadian Rhythm of Underlying Risk and Triggering Factors
- Vascular Tone and Arterial Blood Pressure
- Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis
- Stress and Circadian Rhythms
- Circadian Rhythms and Possible Implications for Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Heart Failure, Stress Effects
- Glossary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
- Glossary
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide and Stress Physiology
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide and the Exercise-Stressed Myocardium in HealthyIndividuals
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide and the Failing Heart
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide and Myocardial Ischemia
- NT-Pro BNP in Relation to Metabolic Risk Factors
- Brain Natriuretic Peptide and NT-ProBNP in Pediatrics
- Further Reading
- Vasoactive Peptides
- Glossary
- Vasoactive Peptides
- Natriuretic Peptides
- Preproadrenomedullin-Derived Peptides and Their Homologs
- Vasoactive Peptides and the Pituitary Response to Stress
- Natriuretic Peptides
- Preproadrenomedullin-Derived Peptides
- Integration of Central and Peripheral Responses to Stress
- A Question of Physiological Relevance
- Further Reading
- Heart Rate
- Glossary
- Forms of Heart Rate Measurement
- Clinical
- Physiological
- Psychological
- Heart Rate Assessment in Behavioral Medicine
- Cardiovascular Reactivity
- Heart Rate Variability
- Heart Rate Assessment in Psychological Science
- Motivation/Affect
- Attention/Cognition
- Interpretive Issues
- Summary
- Acknowledgment
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Kidney Function
- Glossary
- Introduction
- Renal Vascular Resistance (RVR)
- Renal Sympathetic Nerve Activity (RSNA) and RVR
- Hormonal Modulators
- Sodium Reabsorption
- Does Chronic Stress Cause Hypertension by a Renal Mechanism?
- Summary
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Blood Pressure
- Glossary
- Blood Pressure Measurement
- Hypertension
- Stress and Blood Pressure
- Psychophysiology of Stress
- Stress and Hypertension
- Observational studies of stress reactivity
- Prospective studies of stress reactivity
- Animal studies
- Human studies
- Psychosocial factors and hypertension
- Studies of chronic stress
- Ambulatory Blood Pressure
- Methodology
- White Coat Hypertension
- Emotional States, Psychosocial Characteristics, and ABP
- ABP and Location
- Work
- Home
- Sleep
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Angiotensin
- Glossary
- Components of the Renin-Angiotensin System
- Angiotensinogen
- Renin
- Angiotensin Converting Enzyme
- Active Angiotensins
- Receptors
- Endocrine Plasma Renin-Angiotensin System
- Paracrine Tissue Renin-Angiotensin System
- Renin-Angiotensin System and Stress
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Angiotensin Receptors
- Glossary
- Angiotensin Receptors
- AT1 Receptor
- AT2 Receptor
- AT4 Receptor
- Ang 1-7 Receptor
- Actions of Angiotensin
- Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
- Blood Pressure Regulation
- Hormone Release
- Behavior
- Pathophysiology of the RAS
- Hypertension
- Cardiac Hypertrophy
- Microvascular Injury
- Kidney
- Eye
- Brain
- Atherosclerosis
- The RAS and Stress
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Primate Models, Cardiovascular Disease
- Glossary
- Nonhuman Primates as Animal Models
- Behavioral Influences on Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease
- Plasma Lipids
- Blood Pressure
- Behavioral Influences on Atherosclerosis
- Atherosclerosis in Males
- Mediating Role of Sympathetic Nervous System Activation in the Atherosclerosis of Males
- Summary for Male Monkeys
- Sex Differences in Atherosclerosis
- Social Stress and Female Protection from Atherosclerosis in Monkeys
- Social Isolation, Depression, and Atherosclerosis in Females
- Behaviorally Induced Abnormalities in Vascular Reactivity
- Evaluation of Abnormalities in Vascular Reactivity
- Studies in Male Monkeys
- Studies in Female Monkeys
- Summary
- Further Reading
- D. Reproduction, Effects on
- Gender and Stress
- Glossary
- Evidence Supporting Gender Differences in Stress Responses
- Gender Differences in Adrenal Function
- Sex Differences in Neuroendocrine Function
- Pituitary hormone secretion
- Hypothalamic function
- Negative feedback regulation
- Sex Differences in Behavioral Responses to Stress
- Basic Mechanisms of Sexual Differentiation of Neural Function
- Organizational Effects of Gonadal Steroid Hormones on Stress Responses
- Activational Effects of Gonadal Steroid Hormones on Stress Responses
- Clinical Implications for Gender Differences in Stress Responses
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Gonadotropin Secretion, Effects of Stress on
- Glossary
- Control of Normal Gonadotropin Secretion
- Hypothalamic Control: The Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Pulse Generator
- Gonadotropins and the Reproductive Cycle
- The Gonadotropin Response to Stressors: Cross-Talk between the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axes
- Effects of Stressors on Tonic Gonadotropin Release
- Effects of Stressors on the Surge Mode of Luteinizing Hormone Release
- Stressors and an Early Short-Term Rise in Gonadotropins
- Central Pathways Mediating the Stress Response
- The Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus
- The Endogenous Opioid Peptides
- Stressors and the Reproductive Cycle
- Stress and Amenorrhea
- Stress and Menstrual Cycle Defects
- Prolongation of the follicular phase
- Inadequate luteal phase
- Premature ovulatory luteinizing hormone surge
- See Also the Following Article
- Further Reading
- Menstrual Cycles and Stress
- Glossary
- The Menstrual Cycle
- Biological Effects of Stress on Menstruation
- Anorexia Nervosa and Amenorrhea
- Exercise, Stress, and the Menstrual Cycle
- Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Stress, Mood, and Psychiatric Symptoms
- Consequences of Amenorrhea
- Treatment Issues
- Further Reading
- Reproduction, Effects of Social Stress On
- Glossary
- Social Stress and the Likelihood of Conception
- Physiological Mechanisms
- Inhibition/Delay of Sexual Maturation
- Inhibition/Delay of Ovulation
- Impairment of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Function
- Social Stress and Pregnancy Outcome
- Physiological Mechanisms
- Failure of Implantation
- Spontaneous Abortion
- Maternal Stress and Neonatal Mortality
- Maternal Stress and Neonatal Morbidity
- Long-Term Health of the Offspring
- Maternal Stress and Offspring Central Nervous System (CNS) Function
- The Significance of Low Birth Weight to Health in Later Life
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Pheromones
- Glossary
- Chemical Communication and Social Odors
- The Vomeronasal Organ
- Chemoarchitecture of the Vomeronasal Organ to Accessory Olfactory Bulb Projection
- Central Neural Pathways of the Vomeronasal System
- Activation of Vomeronasal Neural Pathways
- Activation of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons
- Vomeronasal Organ Response to Olfactory Stimuli and Olfactory System Response to Pheromonal Stimuli
- Stress and Reproduction
- Social Interactions
- Agonistic Interactions
- Nonsocial Interactions
- Stress Signaling Mediated by Pheromones
- See Also the Following Articles
- Further Reading
- Subject Index
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