
Slow-wave Microwave and mm-wave Passive Circuits
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Comprehensive resource presenting the fundamentals and state of the art concepts, design examples, relevant components, and technology
Slow-wave Microwave and mm-wave Passive Circuits presents the fundamentals and state of the art concepts, design examples, relevant components, and technology of the subject, plus examples of circuit layout optimization using slow-wave circuits. Recent advances in aspects of the slow-wave concept are covered, with potential applications including automotive radars, medical and security applications, and 5G and future 6G for very high-speed communications.
The text considers a variety of slow-wave structures and associated concepts which are useful for circuit design, each structure electrically modeled with clear illustration.
The highly qualified authors show that the use of the slow-wave concept can, in some cases, improve the performance of passive circuits. The techniques proposed make it possible to reduce the size and/or the performance of the circuits, with a beneficial cost-saving effect on semiconductor materials. Concepts are applied to several technologies, namely CMOS, PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and nanowires.
Sample topics covered include:
- Concepts of energy storage with examples of slow-wave CPW (S-CPW), slow-wave SIW (SW-SIW), and slow-wave microstrip (S-MS),
- Transmission line topology and application in integrated technologies (CMOS), including possibilities offered by the BEOL (Back-End-Of-Line),
- Effect of the geometrical dimensions on the transmission line parameters (Zc, a, ereff, and Q) and comparisons between conventional CPW and CPS, and slow-wave CPW and CPS,
- Performance of slow-wave coupled lines and comparison with conventional microstrip coupled lines.
Slow-wave Microwave and mm-wave Passive Circuits is a highly useful resource for graduate students (best complemented with a basic book on microwaves), engineers, and researchers. The text is also valuable for physicists wishing to implement comparable techniques in optics or mechanics.
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Persons
Philippe Ferrari, Professor of Electrical Engineering, University Grenoble Alpes, France and senior member of the IEEE.
Anne-Laure Franc, Assistant Professor with the University of Toulouse, France.
Marc Margalef-Rovira, Research Engineer at STMicroelectronics, France.
Gustavo P. Rehder, Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Systems at the Laboratory of Microelectronics, University of São Paulo, Brazil.
Ariana Lacorte Caniato Serrano, Associate Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronic Systems, University of São Paulo, Brazil.
Content
List of Contributors vii
Preface ix
Acronyms xi
1 Background Theory and Concepts 1
Philippe Ferrari, Marc Margalef-Rovira, and Gustavo P. Rehder
1.1 Historical Background 1
1.2 The Slow-Wave Concept 3
1.3 Modern Slow-Wave Transmission Lines Brief Description 7
1.3.1 Slow-Wave Coplanar Waveguide 7
1.3.2 Slow-Wave Microstrip (S-MS) 8
1.3.3 Slow-Wave Substrate Integrated Waveguide (SW-SIW) 8
1.4 Motivations for the Development of Modern Slow-Wave Transmission Lines 9
1.4.1 Improvement of Transmission Lines Performance in Integrated Technologies 10
1.4.2 Reduction of the Transmission Lines and SIWs Length 16
1.4.3 Addition of New Degrees of Freedom in the Development of Coupled-Lines and 3D Transmission Lines 16
References 17
2 Slow-Wave Coplanar Waveguides and Slow-Wave Coplanar Striplines 21
Anne-Laure Franc, Leonardo Gomes, Marc Margalef-Rovira, and Abdelhalim Saadi
2.1 Introduction - Chapter Organization 21
2.2 Principle of Slow-Wave CPW and Slow-Wave CPS 22
2.2.1 Slow-Wave Coplanar Waveguides Topology 22
2.2.2 Slow-Wave Coplanar Striplines Topology 24
2.2.3 Figures of Merit 24
2.3 Slow-Wave Coplanar Waveguides 25
2.3.1 Electrical Performance 25
2.3.1.1 CPW Strips Dimensions 26
2.3.1.2 Shield Dimensions 28
2.3.1.3 Metal Strips' Thickness 29
2.3.2 Electrical Model 30
2.3.2.1 Model Components 31
2.3.2.2 Model Component Calculations 33
2.3.2.3 Losses Distribution 35
2.3.2.4 Dispersion: Floating Shield Equivalent Inductance 37
2.3.3 Benchmark With Conventional Transmission Lines 38
2.3.3.1 Comparison of Electrical Performance 38
2.3.3.2 Trade-off Between Surface Area and Electrical Performance 40
2.4 Slow-Wave Coplanar Striplines 41
2.4.1 Electrical Performance 41
2.4.2 Electrical Model 43
2.4.3 Design 44
2.4.3.1 Design Rules 44
2.4.3.2 Design Flexibility 45
2.5 Coupled Slow-Wave Coplanar Waveguides 45
2.5.1 Topology 45
2.5.1.1 Design Flexibility 45
2.5.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields Distribution 47
2.5.3 Propagation Modes in Coupled Slow-Wave CPWs 47
2.5.4 Definition of the Electric Model Topology: RLRC Model for Coupled Lines 48
2.5.4.1 Magnetic Coupling 49
2.5.4.2 Electric Coupling 50
2.5.4.3 Lossy Model of a Coupled Slow-Wave CPW 52
2.5.5 Design Charts 52
2.6 Circuits Using Slow-Wave CPW and Slow-Wave CPS 54
2.6.1 Junctions 55
2.6.1.1 Microstrip to Slow-Wave CPW Junction 55
2.6.1.2 Tee-Junctions 56
2.6.2 Millimeter-Wave Filters 57
2.6.2.1 Dual Behavior Resonator 57
2.6.2.2 Coupled Lines Filters 59
2.6.2.3 LC Quasi-Lumped Resonator 61
2.6.3 Power Divider/Combiner 65
2.6.3.1 Wilkinson Topology 65
2.6.3.2 Variation Based on Wilkinson Topology 66
2.6.4 Couplers & Baluns 69
2.6.4.1 Branch-Line Couplers 69
2.6.4.2 Coupled Line Couplers 69
2.6.4.3 Rat-Race Balun 71
2.6.4.4 Power-Divider-Based Balun 73
2.6.5 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator tank 73
2.6.5.1 Slow-Wave CPS as Inductor Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 74
2.6.5.2 Slow-wave CPS resonator standing wave Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 77
2.6.5.3 Conclusion 79
2.6.6 Phase Shifter 80
2.6.6.1 Integrated Phase Shifter With Varactors 81
2.6.6.2 Compact Liquid Crystal MEMS Phase Shifter 82
2.6.7 Sensors 85
2.7 Conclusion 86
References 86
3 Slow-Wave Microstrip Lines 91
Hamza Issa and Ariana Lacorte Caniato Serrano
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Principle of Slow-Wave Microstrip Lines 92
3.3 PCB Technology 94
3.3.1 Slow-Wave Microstrip Line 94
3.3.2 Slow-Wave Coupled Lines 95
3.4 Metallic Nanowire Membrane Technology 95
3.5 Electrical Model 98
3.5.1 Linear Capacitance C SMS 99
3.5.2 Linear Inductance L SMS 103
3.5.2.1 PCB Technology 103
3.5.2.2 MnM Technology 104
3.5.3 Linear Strip Resistance R 105
3.5.4 Linear Conductance G 105
3.5.5 Metallic via Inductance L via and Mutual M ij 105
3.5.6 Metallic vias Resistance R via 107
3.5.7 Electrical Model for Coupled Lines 107
3.5.8 Validation 108
3.5.8.1 PCB Technology 109
3.5.8.2 MnM Technology 111
3.5.9 Discussion 120
3.6 Applications 121
3.6.1 Wilkinson Power Divider 122
3.6.2 Branch-Line Coupler 124
3.6.3 Forward-Wave Directional Coupler 126
3.6.4 MEMS Phase Shifter With Liquid Crystal 129
3.7 CMOS Technology 132
3.7.1 Slow-Wave Microstrip Lines (S-MS) 132
3.7.2 Principle of an Artificial Transmission Line Based on Meandered S-MS Lines 135
3.7.3 Artificial S-MS Line and Meandered-Microstrip Line 135
3.7.3.1 Design 135
3.7.3.2 Results and Comparison 136
3.7.4 Branch-Line Coupler 137
3.7.4.1 Design 137
3.7.4.2 Results 138
3.7.4.3 Influence of the Back-End-Of-Line 140
References 140
4 Slow-Wave SIW 143
Matthieu Bertrand, Jordan Corsi, Emmanuel Pistono, and Gustavo P. Rehder
4.1 Substrate Integrated Waveguides 144
4.2 Basic Concept of the Slow-Wave SIW 146
4.3 Modeling of Slow-Wave SIW 147
4.3.1 Lossless SW-PPW to Lossless SW-SIW 147
4.3.2 Lossy Slow-Wave PPW (Dielectric Losses) 151
4.3.3 Lossy Slow-Wave PPW (Metallic Posts Losses) 153
4.4 SW-SIW in PCB Technology 157
4.4.1 Design Rules 157
4.4.2 Ku-Band SW-SIW Implementation and Results 158
4.4.3 SW-SIW Coupler 161
4.4.4 SW-SIW Cavity Filter 165
4.4.5 Slow-Wave SIW Cavity-Backed Antenna 167
4.5 SW-SIW in Metallic Nanowire Membrane Technology 170
4.5.1 Effective Width and Cut-off Frequency 172
4.5.2 Losses due to Metallic Nanowires 173
4.5.3 W-Band Implementation and Results 176
4.5.4 SW-SIW Cavity Filters 180
References 183
Index 187
1
Background Theory and Concepts
Philippe Ferrari1, Marc Margalef-Rovira2, and Gustavo P. Rehder3
1TIMA, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Grenoble, France
2STMicroelectronics, RFC HDC, Crolles, France
3Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
The objective of this introductory chapter is to draw up a brief history of slow-wave structures in Section 1.1, then to define the concept of slow-wave propagation from a theoretical point of view in Section 1.2, next to briefly present the three slow-wave transmission lines (in Section 1.3) presented in detail within the following chapters, namely slow-wave coplanar waveguides (S-CPWs, Chapter 2), slow-wave coplanar striplines (S-CPS, Chapter 2), slow-wave microstrip (S-MS, Chapter 3), slow-wave substrate integrated waveguides (SW-SIW, Chapter 4), and finally, in Section 1.4, to highlight some advantages of modern slow-wave transmission lines, which is a big part of the motivation for this book.
1.1 Historical Background
During the second half of the 20th century, technological advancements had greatly impacted modern society, with telecommunication networks being one of the most notable. With numerous scientific and technological breakthroughs, these networks have become more complex and efficient. This has led the consumer electronics market to become economically significant, with the development of new services and activities driven by the increasing demand for high-definition multimedia applications, secure data transmission, wearables, etc. To provide the necessary bandwidths and subsequent data rates for these applications, the next generation of wireless communications is oriented toward higher frequencies, especially the millimeter wave (mm-wave) bands. However, this presents new challenges, such as the need for wireless transceiver circuits that can operate at high frequencies with reasonable efficiencies, relying on low-cost technologies and compact solutions. Slow-wave structures can be a solution for the design of compact circuits.
The concept of slow-wave structures emerged in the early 1940s, for their capability to establish efficient interaction with electron beams. More precisely, it started in the context of radar applications where these interactions were used to amplify RF waves. The amplification was based on transferring kinetic energy from electrons to a propagating wave. Based on this principle, the first slow-wave structure was called "klystron," a high-frequency vacuum tube invented in 1937 by W. Hansen and the Varian brothers (Varian & Varian, 1939), as illustrated in Fig. 1.1(a). In these amplifiers, the slow-wave propagation was achieved by cascading resonant cavities, which resulted in narrowband operation (Wu, 1999). In these structures, the slow-wave propagation was necessary because the interaction requires close velocities between the wave and the electrons, which move in vacuum at a lower velocity than the light. This interaction was further enhanced by R. Kompfner, who realized, in 1943, a broadband amplifier based on a nonresonant helix structure called "traveling-wave tube" (TWT; Kompfner, 1947), illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). Improved versions of these devices are still in use for radar, satellite communications, television broadcasting, and particle accelerators. Oscillators have also been developed based on the same principles.
Figure 1.1 (a) First commercial klystron.
Source: Henney 1940/with permission of WorldRadioHistory;
(b) Traveling-wave tube principle of operation.
Source: Adapted from Kompfner (1947).
During the 1960s, the development of integrated microwave circuits provided a good opportunity to develop layered structures with potential slow-wave propagation. This concept was demonstrated for the first time in 1969 for a metal-insulator-semiconductor microstrip structure (Hasegawa et al., 1971) on silicon. It was followed by several topologies, including the Schottky contact transmission line (Jager, 1976). Thanks to an external bias, this last structure was used to create a variable slow-wave effect (Jaffe, 1972). As explained in (Wu, 1999), planar periodic structures gained attention in the early 1970s for the development of wide-band coupled microstrip lines (Podell, 1970). Since then, the research on planar periodic and layered structures has continued until today. In the meantime, slow-wave planar structures have also been used for miniaturization purpose. In microwave passive circuit design, specific functions such as filters, antennas, and couplers can be realized by the combination of physical phenomena such as interference, resonance, and couplings. These phenomena are very often dependent on wavelengths, so that specific properties can be obtained for given dimensions. It also means that, in general, these passive circuits occupy much larger areas than the active ones, which are made of increasingly smaller transistors. For example, a floating straight transmission line has intrinsic resonance frequencies that are directly related to the ratio of the propagation velocity and its physical length. Therefore, for a given frequency, a miniaturized structure can be obtained if the velocity is accordingly reduced. Obviously, the challenge lies in the effort to make such slow-wave structures as efficient in terms of dissipation as the original ones. In printed-circuit-board technology, a high number of topologies have been developed in the recent years, some of them are illustrated in Fig. 1.2. Figure 1.2(a) shows spoof surface plasmon-based transmission lines, for compact designs, reduced attenuation and limited cross-talk (Kianinejad et al., 2015). Compact couplers, such as the "rat-race," are illustrated in Fig. 1.2(b). The compactness was achieved by using a high slow-wave factor (SWF) microstrip structure (Chang & Chang, 2012). In Fig. 1.2(c), a filter based on six slow-wave resonators is also shown (Shi et al., 2010). One could also mention the use of defected ground (Kim & Lee, 2006) and electromagnetic band-gap (Zhurbenko et al., 2006), which often exhibit slow-wave propagation.
Figure 1.2 (a) Spoof surface plasmon-based slow-wave transmission lines.
Source: Kianinejad et al. (2015)/with permission of IEEE;
(b) Rat-race coupler.
Source: Wei-Shin Chang et al. 2012/with permission of IEEE;
(c) Six-resonator low-pass filter based on slow-wave resonators.
Source: Shi et al. (2010)/with permission of IEEE.
Concerning integrated technologies, the design of compact and low-loss passive circuits is a real challenge. It is especially true for the newly addressed mm-wave bands, in which parasitic couplings are more and more limiting and where the high conduction losses result in poor quality factors. In this context, slow-wave structures do not only provide miniaturized circuits but may also lead to higher quality factors (Chee et al., 2006; Cheung & Long, 2006; Franc et al., 2013). This is the case of the S-CPW, whose geometry prevents conduction losses in the semiconductor by shielding the electric field (see Fig. 1.3(a)). Meander lines were also used to realize compact couplers in silicon-based integrated passive device (IPD) technologies (Tseng & Chen, 2016), as shown in Fig. 1.3(b). A band-pass filter using a slow-wave microstrip topology was presented in (Evans et al., 2012), it is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(c).
1.2 The Slow-Wave Concept
In this section, a general theoretical approach explaining the concept of slow-wave propagation is presented. It is based on the magnetic and electric energies that are stored in a waveguide (Bertrand et al., 2020).
A general uniform waveguide topology is illustrated in Fig. 1.4.
The cross section could contain either different metallic conductors, magnetic, or dielectric materials. A wave propagating inside such a waveguide is characterized by its phase constant ß and angular frequency ?. By definition, its phase velocity vp is the velocity at which the phase of the wave travels in space, and is defined as (1.1).
(1.1)Figure 1.3 (a) Slow-wave coplanar waveguide topology.
Source: Franc et al. (2013)/with permission of IEEE;
(b) Slow-wave coupler in silicon-based IPD technology.
Source: Tseng et al. 2016/with permission of IEEE;
(c) Miniaturized slow-wave microstrip filter in 65-nm CMOS technology.
Source: Evans et al. (2012)/with permission of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.
It can be seen as the velocity at which an observer should travel along the waveguide in order to keep in state with this wave. A second velocity is called group velocity, vg, and it is the velocity at which the overall shape of the waves' amplitudes - or modulation - travels through space. This velocity is also often interpreted as the velocity at which the energy or information propagates; it is given by (1.2).
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