Chapter 1
Introduction

Learning Objective

The objectives of this chapter are to:

• introduce the concept of research;
• provide awareness of different classifications of research;
• outline the essentials of theories and paradigms;
• discuss the various research styles;
• introduce quantitative and qualitative approaches;
• consider where, and how, to begin.

1.1 The concept of research

Chambers English Dictionary defines research as:

• a careful search
• investigation
• systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge.

For many people, the prospect of embarking on a research project is a daunting one. However, especially for people who are associated with a project-oriented industry, such as property development, building design, construction or facilities management, familiarity with the nature of projects and their management is a significant advantage. Dr Martin Barnes, an ex-chairperson of the Association of Project Managers (APM), has described a project as a task or an activity which has a beginning (start), a middle and an end that involves a process which leads to an output (product/solution). Despite the situation that much research is carried out as part of a long-term 'rolling' programme, each individual package of research is an entity which is complete in itself, while contributing to the overall programme.

Indeed, any work which assists in the advancement of knowledge, whether of society, a group or an individual, involves research; it will involve enquiry and learning also.

1.1.1 Research: a careful search/investigation

Research can be considered to be a 'voyage of discovery', whether anything is discovered or not. In fact, it is highly likely that some discovery will result because discovery can concern the process of investigation as well as the 'technical subject' (the topic of investigation). Even if no new knowledge is apparent, the investigation may lend further support for existing theory. What is discovered depends on the question(s) which the research addresses, the patterns and techniques of searching, the location and subject material investigated, the analyses carried out and, importantly, reflection by the researcher on the results of the analyses in the context of the theory and literature and methodology/methods employed. The knowledge and abilities of researchers and their associates are important in executing the investigative work and, perhaps more especially, in the production of results, discussion of them and the drawing of conclusions. Being open-minded and as objective as possible is vital for good research.

1.1.2 Research: contribution to knowledge

The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) defines research as '.any form of disciplined inquiry that aims to contribute to a body of knowledge or theory' (ESRC, 2007). That definition demonstrates that the inquiry must be designed and structured appropriately and that it is the intent of the inquiry which is important (to distinguish from casual inquiries) rather than the outcome per se.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1995) provides a more extensive definition of research as 'the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources and so on in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions'. Here the emphasis lies on determining facts in order to reach new conclusions - hence, new knowledge. The issue of 'facts' is not as clear, philosophically speaking, as is commonly assumed, and will be considered later.

The dictionary continues: 'an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts and so on by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation'. Here there is added emphasis on the method(s) of study; the importance of being scientific and critical is reinforced.

Therefore, research comprises what (facts and conclusions) and how (scientific; critical) components. Being critical, even sceptical, rather than merely accepting, is vital; evidence to support assertions, use of methods, production of findings and so on is essential. '.critical analysis questions the authority and objective necessity of the normative framework that is taken for granted.also challenges the adequacy of.accounts.' (Willmott 1993: p. 522). Further, it is concerned to '.situate the development and popularity of ideas and practices.in the material and historical contexts of their emergence and application.' (ibid: p. 521).

The history of the nature of investigations constituting research is paralleled by the continuum of activities undertaken in a modern research project - description, classification, comparison, measurement, establishing (any) association, determining cause and effect (Bonoma 1985). 'Studies toward the description end of the continuum might be associated more frequently with theory building, whereas those near the cause-and-effect end are more frequently used for theory disconfirmation [testing]' ([..] added, ibid: p. 201).

Traditionally, the essential feature of research for a doctoral degree (PhD - Doctor of Philosophy) is that the work makes an original (incremental) contribution to knowledge. This is a requirement for a PhD, and many other research projects also make original contributions to knowledge. A vast number of research projects synthesise and analyse existing theory, ideas and findings of other research, in seeking to answer a particular question or to provide new insights. Such research is often referred to as scholarship; scholarship forms a vital underpinning for almost every type of research project (including PhD). However, the importance of scholarship is, all too often, not appreciated adequately - it informs and provides a major foundation upon which further knowledge is built, for both the topic of investigation and the methodology and methods by which investigations may be carried out.

Despite its image, research is not an activity which is limited to academics, scientists and so on; it is carried out by everyone many times each day. Some research projects are larger, need more resources and are more important than others.

Example

Consider what you would do in response to being asked, 'What is the time, please?' Having heard and understood the question, your response process might be:

• look at watch/clock
• read time
• formulate answer
• state answer ('The time is.').

In providing an answer to the original question, a certain amount of research has been done.

Clearly, it is the research question, or problem, that drives the research. Methodology, method(s), data and so on are determined to best suit answering the question validly, accurately and reliably. It is dangerous to adopt a method and then to hunt for questions and problems to which the method may be applied - it may not be (very) suitable and so, lead to difficulties and dubious results.

1.1.3 A learning process

Research is a learning process.perhaps the only learning process.

Commonly, teaching is believed to be the passing on of knowledge, via instructions given by the teacher, to the learner. Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding. Thus, teaching exists only through the presence of learning and constitutes a communication process to stimulate learning; teaching is 'facilitation of learning'. If someone is determined not to learn, they cannot be forced to do so, although they may be persuaded to learn through forceful means.

1.1.4 Contextual factors affecting research

Research does not occur in a vacuum. Research projects take place in contexts - of the researcher's interests, expertise and experiences; of human contacts; of the physical environment and so on. Thus, despite the best intentions and rigorous precautions, it seems inevitable that circumstances, purpose and so on will impact on the work and its results (a 'Hawthorne effect' or a 'halo effect'). The fact that research is being carried out will, itself, influence the results, as described in the Hawthorne investigations of Elton Mayo (1949) and noted in the writings of Karl Popper (1989) on the philosophy of research. Research is never a completely closed system. Indeed, much research is, of necessity, an open system which allows for, and accommodates, adaptability (e.g. exploratory studies, processual research).

As research is always executed in context, it is important to consider the contextual factors, the environmental variables, which may influence the results through their impacting on the data recorded. (Environmental variables and constructs are fundamental, express concerns of institutional theory; Scott 1995; Oliver 1997.) Such environmental variables merit consideration in tandem with the subject variables - dependent, independent and intervening (see Fig. 1.1) - of the topic of study. The choice of methodology/methodologies is important in assisting identification of all relevant variables, their mechanisms and amounts of impact.

Figure...