Introduction to Petroleum Engineering
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About the Authors xiii
Preface xv
About the Companion Website xvi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is Petroleum Engineering? 1
1.1.1 Alternative Energy Opportunities 3
1.1.2 Oil and Gas Units 3
1.1.3 Production Performance Ratios 4
1.1.4 Classification of Oil and Gas 4
1.2 Life Cycle of a Reservoir 6
1.3 Reservoir Management 9
1.3.1 Recovery Efficiency 9
1.4 Petroleum Economics 11
1.4.1 The Price of Oil 14
1.4.2 How Does Oil Price Affect Oil Recovery? 14
1.4.3 How High Can Oil Prices Go? 15
1.5 Petroleum and the Environment 16
1.5.1 Anthropogenic Climate Change 16
1.5.2 Environmental Issues 19
1.6 Activities 20
1.6.1 Further Reading 20
1.6.2 True/False 21
1.6.3 Exercises 21
2 The Future of Energy 23
2.1 Global Oil and Gas Production and Consumption 23
2.2 Resources and Reserves 24
2.2.1 Reserves 27
2.3 Oil and Gas Resources 29
2.3.1 Coal Gas 29
2.3.2 Gas Hydrates 31
2.3.3 Tight Gas Sands, Shale Gas, and Shale Oil 31
2.3.4 Tar Sands 33
2.4 Global Distribution of Oil and Gas Reserves 34
2.5 Peak Oil 36
2.5.1 World Oil Production Rate Peak 37
2.5.2 World Per Capita Oil Production Rate Peak 37
2.6 Future Energy Options 39
2.6.1 Goldilocks Policy for Energy Transition 39
2.7 Activities 42
2.7.1 Further Reading 42
2.7.2 True/False 42
2.7.3 Exercises 42
3 Properties of Reservoir Fluids 45
3.1 Origin 45
3.2 Classification 47
3.3 Definitions 51
3.4 Gas Properties 54
3.5 Oil Properties 55
3.6 Water Properties 60
3.7 Sources of Fluid Data 61
3.7.1 Constant Composition Expansion 61
3.7.2 Differential Liberation 62
3.7.3 Separator Test 62
3.8 Applications of Fluid Properties 63
3.9 Activities 64
3.9.1 Further Reading 64
3.9.2 True/False 64
3.9.3 Exercises 64
4 Properties of Reservoir Rock 67
4.1 Porosity 67
4.1.1 Compressibility of Pore Volume 69
4.1.2 Saturation 70
4.1.3 Volumetric Analysis 71
4.2 Permeability 71
4.2.1 Pressure Dependence of Permeability 73
4.2.2 Superficial Velocity and Interstitial Velocity 74
4.2.3 Radial Flow of Liquids 74
4.2.4 Radial Flow of Gases 75
4.3 Reservoir Heterogeneity and Permeability 76
4.3.1 Parallel Configuration 76
4.3.2 Series Configuration 76
4.3.3 Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient 77
4.4 Directional Permeability 79
4.5 Activities 80
4.5.1 Further Reading 80
4.5.2 True/False 80
4.5.3 Exercises 80
5 Multiphase Flow 83
5.1 Interfacial Tension, Wettability, and Capillary Pressure 83
5.2 Fluid Distribution and Capillary Pressure 86
5.3 Relative Permeability 88
5.4 Mobility and Fractional Flow 90
5.5 One-dimensional Water-oil Displacement 91
5.6 Well Productivity 95
5.7 Activities 97
5.7.1 Further Reading 97
5.7.2 True/False 97
5.7.3 Exercises 98
6 Petroleum Geology 101
6.1 Geologic History of the Earth 101
6.1.1 Formation of the Rocky Mountains 106
6.2 Rocks and Formations 107
6.2.1 Formations 108
6.3 Sedimentary Basins and Traps 111
6.3.1 Traps 111
6.4 What Do You Need to form a Hydrocarbon Reservoir? 112
6.5 Volumetric Analysis, Recovery Factor, and EUR 113
6.5.1 Volumetric Oil in Place 114
6.5.2 Volumetric Gas in Place 114
6.5.3 Recovery Factor and Estimated Ultimate Recovery 115
6.6 Activities 115
6.6.1 Further Reading 115
6.6.2 True/False 116
6.6.3 Exercises 116
7 Reservoir Geophysics 119
7.1 Seismic Waves 119
7.1.1 Earthquake Magnitude 122
7.2 Acoustic Impedance and Reflection Coefficients 124
7.3 Seismic Resolution 126
7.3.1 Vertical Resolution 126
7.3.2 Lateral Resolution 127
7.3.3 Exploration Geophysics and Reservoir Geophysics 128
7.4 Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing, and Interpretation 129
7.4.1 Data Acquisition 129
7.4.2 Data Processing 130
7.4.3 Data Interpretation 130
7.5 Petroelastic Model 131
7.5.1 IFM Velocities 131
7.5.2 IFM Moduli 132
7.6 Geomechanical Model 133
7.7 Activities 135
7.7.1 Further Reading 135
7.7.2 True/False 135
7.7.3 Exercises 135
8 Drilling 137
8.1 Drilling Rights 137
8.2 Rotary Drilling Rigs 138
8.2.1 Power Systems 139
8.2.2 Hoisting System 141
8.2.3 Rotation System 141
8.2.4 Drill String and Bits 143
8.2.5 Circulation System 146
8.2.6 Well Control System 148
8.3 The Drilling Process 149
8.3.1 Planning 149
8.3.2 Site Preparation 150
8.3.3 Drilling 151
8.3.4 Open-Hole Logging 152
8.3.5 Setting Production Casing 153
8.4 Types of Wells 155
8.4.1 Well Spacing and Infill Drilling 155
8.4.2 Directional Wells 156
8.4.3 Extended Reach Drilling 158
8.5 Activities 158
8.5.1 Further Reading 158
8.5.2 True/False 158
8.5.3 Exercises 159
9 Well Logging 161
9.1 Logging Environment 161
9.1.1 Wellbore and Formation 162
9.1.2 Open or Cased? 163
9.1.3 Depth of Investigation 164
9.2 Lithology Logs 164
9.2.1 Gamma-Ray Logs 164
9.2.2 Spontaneous Potential Logs 165
9.2.3 Photoelectric Log 167
9.3 Porosity Logs 167
9.3.1 Density Logs 167
9.3.2 Acoustic Logs 168
9.3.3 Neutron Logs 169
9.4 Resistivity Logs 170
9.5 Other Types of Logs 174
9.5.1 Borehole Imaging 174
9.5.2 Spectral Gamma-Ray Logs 174
9.5.3 Dipmeter Logs 174
9.6 Log Calibration with Formation Samples 175
9.6.1 Mud Logs 175
9.6.2 Whole Core 175
9.6.3 Sidewall Core 176
9.7 Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling 176
9.8 Reservoir Characterization Issues 177
9.8.1 Well Log Legacy 177
9.8.2 Cutoffs 177
9.8.3 Cross-Plots 178
9.8.4 Continuity of Formations between Wells 178
9.8.5 Log Suites 179
9.8.6 Scales of Reservoir Information 180
9.9 Activities 182
9.9.1 Further Reading 182
9.9.2 True/False 182
9.9.3 Exercises 182
10 Well Completions 185
10.1 Skin 186
10.2 Production Casing and Liners 188
10.3 Perforating 189
10.4 Acidizing 192
10.5 Hydraulic Fracturing 193
10.5.1 Horizontal Wells 201
10.6 Wellbore and Surface Hardware 202
10.7 Activities 203
10.7.1 Further Reading 203
10.7.2 True/False 203
10.7.3 Exercises 204
11 Upstream Facilities 205
11.1 Onshore Facilities 205
11.2 Flash Calculation for Separators 208
11.3 Pressure Rating for Separators 211
11.4 Single-Phase Flow in Pipe 213
11.5 Multiphase Flow in Pipe 216
11.5.1 Modeling Multiphase Flow in Pipes 217
11.6 Well Patterns 218
11.6.1 Intelligent Wells and Intelligent Fields 219
11.7 Offshore Facilities 221
11.8 Urban Operations: The Barnett Shale 224
11.9 Activities 225
11.9.1 Further Reading 225
11.9.2 True/False 225
11.9.3 Exercises 225
12 Transient Well Testing 227
12.1 Pressure Transient Testing 227
12.1.1 Flow Regimes 228
12.1.2 Types of Pressure Transient Tests 228
12.2 Oil Well Pressure Transient Testing 229
12.2.1 Pressure Buildup Test 232
12.2.2 Interpreting Pressure Transient Tests 235
12.2.3 Radius of Investigation of a Liquid Well 237
12.3 Gas Well Pressure Transient Testing 237
12.3.1 Diffusivity Equation 238
12.3.2 Pressure Buildup Test in a Gas Well 238
12.3.3 Radius of Investigation 239
12.3.4 Pressure Drawdown Test and the Reservoir Limit Test 240
12.3.5 Rate Transient Analysis 241
12.3.6 Two-Rate Test 242
12.4 Gas Well Deliverability 242
12.4.1 The SBA Method 244
12.4.2 The LIT Method 245
12.5 Summary of Transient Well Testing 246
12.6 Activities 246
12.6.1 Further Reading 246
12.6.2 True/False 246
12.6.3 Exercises 247
13 Production Performance 249
13.1 Field Performance Data 249
13.1.1 Bubble Mapping 250
13.2 Decline Curve Analysis 251
13.2.1 Alternative DCA Models 253
13.3 Probabilistic DCA 254
13.4 Oil Reservoir Material Balance 256
13.4.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoir with Water Influx 257
13.4.2 Schilthuis Material Balance Equation 258
13.5 Gas Reservoir Material Balance 261
13.5.1 Depletion Drive Gas Reservoir 262
13.6 Depletion Drive Mechanisms and Recovery Efficiencies 263
13.7 Inflow Performance Relationships 266
13.8 Activities 267
13.8.1 Further Reading 267
13.8.2 True/False 267
13.8.3 Exercises 268
14 Reservoir Performance 271
14.1 Reservoir Flow Simulators 271
14.1.1 Flow Units 272
14.1.2 Reservoir Characterization Using Flow Units 272
14.2 Reservoir Flow Modeling Workflows 274
14.3 Performance of Conventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs 276
14.3.1 Wilmington Field, California: Immiscible Displacement by Water Flooding 277
14.3.2 Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska: Water Flood, Gas Cycling, and Miscible Gas Injection 278
14.4 Performance of an Unconventional Reservoir 280
14.4.1 Barnett Shale, Texas: Shale Gas Production 280
14.5 Performance of Geothermal Reservoirs 285
14.6 Activities 287
14.6.1 Further Reading 287
14.6.2 True/False 287
14.6.3 Exercises 288
15 Midstream and Downstream Operations 291
15.1 The Midstream Sector 291
15.2 The Downstream Sector: Refineries 294
15.2.1 Separation 295
15.2.2 Conversion 299
15.2.3 Purification 300
15.2.4 Refinery Maintenance 300
15.3 The Downstream Sector: Natural Gas Processing Plants 300
15.4 Sakhalin-2 Project, Sakhalin Island, Russia 301
15.4.1 History of Sakhalin Island 302
15.4.2 The Sakhalin-2 Project 306
15.5 Activities 310
15.5.1 Further Reading 310
15.5.2 True/False 310
15.5.3 Exercises 311
Appendix Unit Conversion Factors 313
References 317
Index 327
