Practical Creativity and Innovation in Systems Engineering
Description
Practical Creativity and Innovation in Systems Engineering exposes engineers to a broad set of creative methods they can adopt in their daily practices. In addition, this book guides engineers to become entrepreneurs within traditional engineering companies, promoting creative and innovative culture around them.
The author describes basic systems engineering concepts and includes an abbreviated summary of Standard 15288 systems' life cycle processes. He then provides an extensive collection of practical creative methods which are linked to the various systems' life cycle processes. Next, the author discusses obstacles to innovation and, in particular, how engineers can push creative ideas through layers of reactionary bureaucracy within non-innovative organizations. Finally, the author provides a comprehensive description of an exemplary creative and innovative case study recently completed.
The book is filled with illustrative examples and offers effective guidelines that can enhance individual engineers' creative prowess as well as be used to create an organizational culture where creativity and innovation flourishes. This important book:
* Offers typical systems engineering processes that can be accomplished in creative ways throughout the development and post-development portions of a system's lifetime.
* Includes a large collection of practical creative methods applicable to engineering and other technological domains
* Includes innovation advice needed to transform creative ideas into new products, services, businesses and marketing processes
* Contains references and notes for further reading in every section
Written for systems engineering practitioners, graduate school students and faculty members of systems, electrical, aerospace, mechanical and industrial engineering schools, Practical Creativity and Innovation in Systems Engineering offers a useful guide for creating a culture that promotes innovation.
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AVNER ENGEL, PhD, has 45 years' experience in areas of software programming, systems and software engineering, technical management within large firms in the United States and Israel, academic teaching, and scientific research. He is the author of Verification, Validation and Testing of Engineered Systems, published by Wiley as part of Wiley's Systems Engineering and Management Series. Dr. Engel is currently with the Tel Aviv University Systems Engineering Research Institute (TAU-SERI).
Content
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Part I Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Part I 1
1.2 Systems Engineering 4
1.3 Creative Methods 5
1.4 Promoting Innovative Culture 6
1.5 Creative and Innovative Case Study 8
1.6 Back Matter 9
1.7 Bibliography 10
Part II Systems Engineering 11
2.1 Introduction to Part II 11
2.2 Basic Systems Engineering Concepts 13
2.2.1 Essence of Systems Engineering 13
2.2.2 Organizations and Projects Concepts 13
2.2.3 System Concepts 14
2.2.4 Life Cycle Concepts 16
2.2.5 Process Concepts 18
2.2.6 Further Reading 19
2.3 Standard 15288 Processes 19
2.3.1 Agreement Process Group 20
2.3.2 Organizational Project-Enabling Process Group 21
2.3.3 Technical Management Process Group 25
2.3.4 Technical Process Group 31
2.3.5 Further Reading 44
2.4 Philosophy of Engineering 44
2.4.1 Engineering and Truth 45
2.4.2 The Logic of Engineering Design 46
2.4.3 The Context and Nature of Engineering Design 48
2.4.4 Roles and Rules and the Modeling of Socio-Technical Systems 51
2.4.5 Engineering as Synthesis - Doing Right Things and Doing Things Right 54
2.4.6 Further Reading 57
2.5 Bibliography 57
Part III Creative Methods 59
3.1 Introduction to Part III 59
3.2 Divergent Methods for Individuals 61
3.2.1 Lateral Thinking 61
3.2.2 Resolving Contradictions 68
3.2.3 Biomimicry Engineering 76
3.2.4 Visual Creativity (Three Methods) 80
3.3 Divergent Methods for Teams 88
3.3.1 Classic Brainstorming 88
3.3.2 Six Thinking Hats 91
3.3.3 SWOT Analysis 94
3.3.4 SCAMPER Analysis 100
3.3.5 Focus Groups 103
3.4 Convergent Methods for Individuals 105
3.4.1 PMI Analysis 105
3.4.2 Morphological Analysis 110
3.4.3 Decision Tree Analysis 112
3.4.4 Value Analysis/Value Engineering 116
3.4.5 Pareto Analysis 122
3.5 Convergent Methods for Teams 124
3.5.1 Delphi Method 124
3.5.2 SAST Analysis 129
3.5.3 Cause-and-Effect Diagram 134
3.5.4 Kano Model Analysis 137
3.5.5 Group Decisions: Theoretical Background 142
3.5.6 Group Decisions: Practical Methods 150
3.6 Other Creative Methods 156
3.6.1 Process Map Analysis 157
3.6.2 Nine-Screens Analysis 160
3.6.3 Technology Forecasting 165
3.6.4 Design Structure Matrix Analysis 172
3.6.5 Failure Mode Effect Analysis 175
3.6.6 Anticipatory Failure Determination 184
3.6.7 Conflict Analysis and Resolution 191
3.7 Bibliography 198
Part IV Promoting Innovative Culture 205
4.1 Introduction to Part IV 205
4.2 Systems Evolution 207
4.2.1 Modeling Systems Evolution - S-Curve 207
4.2.2 Laws of Systems Evolution 209
4.2.3 Further Reading 226
4.3 Modeling the Innovation Process 226
4.3.1 Classes and Types of Innovations 226
4.3.2 Technological Innovation Process 228
4.3.3 Innovation Funding 235
4.3.4 Further Reading 239
4.4 Measuring Creativity and Innovation 239
4.4.1 Defining Innovation Objectives 239
4.4.2 Measuring the Innovation Process 241
4.4.3 Innovation Capability Maturity Model 246
4.4.4 Further Reading 250
4.5 Obstacles to Innovation 250
4.5.1 Human Habits Factors 250
4.5.2 Costs Factors 252
4.5.3 Institutional Factors 252
4.5.4 Knowledge Factors 253
4.5.5 Markets Factors 253
4.5.6 Innovation Obstacles and Classes of Innovations 254
4.5.7 Further Reading 255
4.6 Promoting Organization's Innovative Culture 255
4.6.1 Introduction 255
4.6.2 Innovation and Leadership 256
4.6.3 Innovation and Organization 259
4.6.4 Innovation and People 260
4.6.5 Innovation and Assets 262
4.6.6 Innovation and Culture 264
4.6.7 Innovation and Values 267
4.6.8 Innovation and Processes 268
4.6.9 Innovation and Tools 268
4.6.10 Conclusion: Ascent to Innovation: Practical Steps 271
4.6.11 Further Reading 274
4.7 Pushing Creative Ideas by Individual Engineers 275
4.7.1 Large Organizations Seldom Innovate 275
4.7.2 Characteristics of Innovative Engineers 280
4.7.3 Innovation Advice to Creative Engineers 285
4.7.4 Further Reading 290
4.8 Human Diversity and Gendered Innovation 290
4.8.1 Human Diversity 290
4.8.2 Shift in Gender Paradigm 292
4.8.3 Gender Disparity and Innovation Implications 295
4.8.4 Advancing Gendered Innovation 298
4.8.5 Gendered Innovation Example 304
4.8.6 Further Reading 308
4.9 Cognitive Biases and Decision-Making 308
4.9.1 Cognitive Biases 309
4.9.2 Cognitive Biases and Strategic Decisions 315
4.9.3 Further Reading 318
4.10 Bibliography 319
Part V Creative and Innovative Case Study 327
5.1 Introduction to Part V 327
5.2 A Problem Seeking a Solution 329
5.2.1 The Problem and Its Inception 329
5.2.2 Initial Funding Effort 331
5.2.3 Further Reading 331
5.3 Gaining Deeper Insights 331
5.3.1 The Problem and the Approach 332
5.3.2 Main Ideas of the Proposed Work 334
5.3.3 Measurable Project Objectives 336
5.3.4 Basis for Predicting the Objectives 337
5.3.5 Systems Adaptability: State-of-the-Art 340
5.3.6 Further Reading 345
5.4 Project Planning 346
5.4.1 Project Planned Activities 346
5.4.2 Detailed Work Package Descriptions 359
5.4.3 Risks and Contingency Plans 372
5.4.4 Management Structure and Procedures 375
5.4.5 Project Participants 382
5.4.6 Resources Needed 387
5.5 The AMISA Project 388
5.5.1 AMISA Initiation 388
5.5.2 Identifying the DFA State-of-the-Art 389
5.5.3 Establishing Requirements for AMISA 390
5.5.4 Implementing a Software Support Tool 390
5.5.5 Developing Six Pilot Projects 391
5.5.6 Generating Deliverables 397
5.5.7 Planning Exploitation beyond AMISA 399
5.5.8 Disseminating Project Results 399
5.5.9 Assessing the AMISA Project 400
5.5.10 Consortium Meetings 402
5.5.11 EC Summary of the Project 405
5.5.12 Further Reading 408
5.6 Architecture Options Theory 408
5.6.1 Financial and Engineering Options 408
5.6.2 Transaction Costs and Interface Costs 410
5.6.3 Architecture Adaptability Value 412
5.6.4 Design Structure Matrix 413
5.6.5 Dynamic System Value Modeling 414
5.6.6 Further Reading 417
5.7 Architecture Options Example 417
5.7.1 Step 1: Define the System and Its Environment 418
5.7.2 Step 2: Decompose the System Architecture 419
5.7.3 Step 3: Determine a Time Horizon for System Upgrade 419
5.7.4 Step 4: Determine Option Value (OV) of Each Component 422
5.7.5 Step 5: Determine Interface Cost (IC) of Each Interface 426
5.7.6 Step 6: Model the System by Way of Design Structure Matrix (DSM) 427
5.7.7 Step 7: Compute Base System's AAV 428
5.7.8 Step 8: Define Components' Exclusion Sets 428
5.7.9 Step 9: Optimize the System Architecture (Merging) 431
5.7.10 Step 10: Perform Sensitivity Analyses 434
5.7.11 Step 11: Evaluate Alternative System Architectures 438
5.7.12 Step 12: Define System Variants 439
5.7.13 Step 13: Estimate the Optimal Upgrade Time 441
5.7.14 Further Reading 442
5.8 AMISA - Endnote 442
5.9 Bibliography 444
Appendix A Life Cycle Processes versus Recommended Creative Methods 447
Appendix B Extended Laws of Technical Systems Evolution 451
B.1 Law 1: System Convergence 452
B.2 Laws 2 to 7: Systems Merging 452
B.3 Law 8: Flow Conductivity 456
B.4 Laws 9 to 14: Enhanced Coordination 458
B.5 Law 15: Controllability 462
B.6 Law 16: Dynamization 463
B.7 Law 17: Transition to Super System 463
B.8 Law 18: Increasing System Completeness 465
B.9 Law 19: Displacement of Human 466
B.10 Law 20: Uneven System Evolution 466
B.11 Law 21: Technology General Progress 467
Appendix C List of Acronyms 469
Appendix D Permissions to Use Third-Party Copyright Material 475
D.1 Part I: Introduction 475
D.2 Part II: Systems Engineering 475
D.3 Part III: Creative Methods 476
D.4 Part IV: Promoting Innovative Culture 477
D.5 Part V: Creative and Innovative Case Study 479
D.6 Appendices 480
Index 483
Wiley Series in Systems Engineering and Management 491
Part I
Introduction
"One must still have chaos in oneself to be able to give birth to a dancing star."
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
1.1 Introduction to Part I
The aim of this book is to acquaint engineers in general and systems engineers in particular with the practical art of creativity and innovation. Systems engineers are people with a capacity to understand many engineering, scientific, and management disciplines. In addition, systems engineers tend to examine issues in a holistic way considering the total system life cycle. This capacity is obtained through formal education, as well as experience in leading multidisciplinary teams in creating, manufacturing, and maintaining complex systems within sustainable environments.1
The basic premise of this book is that creative abilities of human beings are not fixed, inborn traits but, rather, change over their lifetime. For example, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Land tested the level of creativity among children and adults.2 The results, presented in Figure 1.1, are quite shocking. According to the study, 98% of five-year-old children could be categorized as geniuses in terms of their abilities to look at problems and come up with new, different, and creative solutions. This percentage drops to 2% within the average adults' population. Land and Jarman (1998) concluded from this longitudinal study that non-creative behavior is learned.
Figure 1.1 Age versus imagination
Fortunately, creativity skills can also be learned. For example, Scott et al. (2004) analyzed some 70 studies related to creativity training and concluded that well-designed training programs promoted distinct creativity performance gains across different domains and criteria. Hopefully, engineers adopting some of the creative methods discussed in this book will achieve improved creative skills as well.
Another premise of this book is that many creative engineers are stalled in their innovative efforts by organizations that claim to promote innovation but, in fact, consistently crush such efforts. Indeed, it is the author's impression (as well as other researchers3) that, beyond boasting, the vast majority of companies and other organizations are creativity-averse. Naturally, creative engineers working for such organizations are frustrated and discouraged. Not less important are the accumulated losses for the organizations themselves as well as to society at large from neglecting many creative ideas without due consideration. The book attempts to explore this phenomenon and offer practical advice to organizations as well as to the multitudes of demoralized engineers. In particular, engineers are advised to expand their professional and intellectual horizons, seek to reduce risks inherent in their new ideas, and learn to obtain colleagues' support as well as deal with reactionary management. In short, adopt a more entrepreneurial attitude.
Beyond this introductory chapter, Part I of this book provides some key points and a short outline related to the other four parts of the book, namely: (1) systems engineering, (2) creative methods, (3) promoting innovative culture, and (4) creative and innovative case study. In addition, Part I closes with a relevant bibliography. Figure 1.2 depicts the overall structure and contents of the entire book.
Figure 1.2 Book's overall structure
Part I: Introduction, true to its name, provides an introductory material to this book. Part II: Systems Engineering, describes basic systems engineering concepts as well as a partial and abbreviated depiction of Standard 15288 systems' life cycle processes. In addition, for each process, the book identifies a relevant small set of recommended creative methods. Finally, this part presents some intriguing philosophical insights about engineering. Part III: Creative Methods, provides an extensive repertoire of practical creative methods. Part IV: Promoting Innovative Culture, describes ways and means to enhance innovative culture within organizations. In addition, this part provides advice to creative engineers employed by non-creative organizations. Part V: Creative and Innovative Case Study, describes an exemplary creative and innovative case study. Lastly, the back matter of the book contains relevant appendices.
The book contains a massive number of visuals. This is because the author believes engineers (and probably other people) tend to focus on visuals as their immediate and primary source of understanding. Many of these visuals require permission to use third-party copyright so, in order to reduce clutter and ease the reading process, these permissions are provided in Appendix D.
Finally, readers should note that this book does not pursue new theories or theses with regards to creativity and innovation. To the contrary, the author seeks to acquaint systems engineers with well-established facets of creativity and innovation. In order to achieve this objective, the author drew on his engineering experience, communicated with many people, and collected information from many sources, books, articles, internet blogs, and the like (giving credit where credit's due). Sections on further reading at the end of individual chapters, as well as the bibliographies at the end of each part of the book, identify invaluable sources for deeper understanding of the various subject matters discussed in this book. The author gained much knowledge from these resources and is indebted to the individuals, researchers, and experts who created them.
1.2 Systems Engineering
There are many books dedicated to the art of systems engineering, and it is not the purpose of this book to devote much space to this subject. Therefore, the intent of Part II is to construct scaffolding, bridging the gap between the domain of systems engineering and the domains of creativity and innovation. This is done by identifying some basic systems engineering concepts and then describing some 30 systems' life cycle processes in accordance with an abridged International Standard ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288. Each life cycle process is then associated with a specific and relevant set of recommended creative methods. Systems engineers can use these and other creative methods described in Part III to expand their creative skills and enhance their engineering output. Finally, this part provides some philosophical thoughts about engineering.
Chapter 2.2 describes basic systems engineering concepts. More specifically, it includes four basic concepts, namely: (1) organizations and projects concepts, (2) system concepts, (3) life cycle concepts, and (4) process concepts.
Chapter 2.3 describes systems life cycle processes harmonized with Standard 15288. The standard clusters these life cycle processes into four groups: (1) agreement process group, (2) organizational project-enabling process group, (3) technical management process group, and (4) technical process group.
Chapter 2.4 describes some key issues in philosophy of engineering. This includes: (1) engineering and truth, (2) The logic of engineering design, (3) the context and nature of engineering design, (4) roles and rules and the modeling of socio-technical systems, and (5) engineering as synthesis - doing right things and doing things right.
1.3 Creative Methods
Creativity may be defined as "The ability to transcend traditional ideas, rules, patterns, relationships, or the like, and to create meaningful new ideas, forms, interpretations, etc."4 According to Teresa Amabile (1998), creativity is composed of three components: expertise, creative thinking, and motivation (Figure 1.3). Expertise consists of everything a person knows. Among others, this includes technical, procedural, and intellectual knowledge a person may possess. Creative thinking refers to ones' abilities to create meaningful new ideas and blend existing ideas together in new structures. Lastly, motivation determines what people will actually do. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside a person by way of offering person amenities like money, promotion, and the like. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, stems from a person's internal desire to pursue one's passion and interest.
Figure 1.3 Three components of creativity
Fundamentally, creative methods may be partitioned along two axes: (1) divergent versus convergent creative methods and (2) creative methods primarily used by individuals versus teams. Along the first axis, divergent creative methods help in generating multiple creative solutions, whereas convergent creative methods help in trimming the number of creative solutions. Along the second axis, some creative methods are primarily appropriate for individuals, whereas other creative methods are primarily appropriate for teams.
Chapter 3.2 describes divergent methods for individuals, including: (1) lateral thinking, (2) resolving contradictions, (3) biomimicry engineering, and (4) visual creativity.
Chapter 3.3 describes divergent methods for teams, including: (1) classic brainstorming, (2) six thinking hats, (3) SWOT analysis, (4) SCAMPER analysis, and (5) focus groups.
Chapter 3.4 describes convergent methods for individuals, including: (1) PMI analysis, (2) morphological analysis, (3) decision tree analysis, (4) value analysis / value...
