Mobility Protocols and Handover Optimization
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"It is a recommended resource for graduate students, researchers, and IT professionals interested in the study of handoff management." (IEEE Communications Magazine, 1 April 2015)More details
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About the Authors xv
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
Acknowledgements xxiii
List of Abbreviations xxv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Types of Mobility 2
1.1.1 Terminal Mobility 2
1.1.2 Personal Mobility 5
1.1.3 Session Mobility 6
1.1.4 Service Mobility 7
1.2 Performance Requirements 7
1.3 Motivation 8
1.4 Summary of Key Contributions 9
2 Analysis of Mobility Protocols for Multimedia 13
2.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 13
2.2 Introduction 14
2.3 Cellular 1G 15
2.3.1 System Architecture 15
2.3.2 Handoff Procedure 17
2.4 Cellular 2G Mobility 17
2.4.1 GSM 17
2.4.2 IS-95 19
2.5 Cellular 3G Mobility 23
2.5.1 WCDMA 24
2.5.2 CDMA2000 26
2.6 4G Networks 27
2.6.1 Evolved Packet System 28
2.6.2 WiMAX Mobility 31
2.7 IP-Based Mobility 34
2.7.1 Network Layer Macromobility 34
2.7.2 Network Layer Micromobility 40
2.7.3 NETMOB: Network Mobility 46
2.7.4 Transport Layer Mobility 49
2.7.5 Application Layer Mobility 49
2.7.6 Host Identity Protocol 50
2.7.7 MOBIKE 52
2.7.8 IAPP 53
2.8 Heterogeneous Handover 55
2.8.1 UMTS-WLAN Handover 55
2.8.2 LTE-WLAN Handover 58
2.9 Multicast Mobility 61
2.10 Concluding Remarks 71
3 Systems Analysis of Mobility Events 73
3.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 75
3.2 Introduction 75
3.2.1 Comparative Analysis of Mobility Protocols 77
3.3 Analysis of Handoff Components 78
3.3.1 Network Discovery and Selection 80
3.3.2 Network Attachment 80
3.3.3 Configuration 81
3.3.4 Security Association 81
3.3.5 Binding Update 82
3.3.6 Media Rerouting 83
3.4 Effect of Handoff across Layers 83
3.4.1 Layer 2 Delay 84
3.4.2 Layer 3 Delay 84
3.4.3 Application Layer Delay 85
3.4.4 Handoff Operations across Layers 85
3.5 Concluding Remarks 90
4 Modeling Mobility 91
4.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 91
4.2 Introduction 92
4.3 Related Work 92
4.4 Modeling Mobility as a Discrete-Event Dynamic System 93
4.5 Petri Net Primitives 94
4.6 Petri-Net-Based Modeling Methodologies 96
4.7 Resource Utilization during Handoff 97
4.8 Data Dependency Analysis of the Handoff Process 99
4.8.1 Petri-Net-Based Data Dependency 99
4.8.2 Analysis of Data Dependency during Handoff Process 100
4.9 Petri Net Model for Handoff 105
4.10 Petri-Net-Based Analysis of Handoff Event 113
4.10.1 Analysis of Deadlocks in Handoff 114
4.10.2 Reachability Analysis 120
4.10.3 Matrix Equations 122
4.11 Evaluation of Systems Performance Using Petri Nets 123
4.11.1 Cycle-Time-Based Approach 123
4.11.2 Floyd-Algorithm-Based Approach 124
4.11.3 Resource-Time Product Approach 125
4.12 Opportunities for Optimization 128
4.12.1 Analysis of Parallelism in Handoff Operations 129
4.12.2 Opportunities for Proactive Operation 129
4.13 Concluding Remarks 130
5 Layer 2 Optimization 131
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Related Work 131
5.3 IEEE 802.11 Standards 132
5.3.1 The IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Architecture 133
5.3.2 IEEE 802.11 Management Frames 134
5.4 Handoff Procedure with Active Scanning 135
5.4.1 Steps during Handoff 135
5.5 Fast-Handoff Algorithm 137
5.5.1 Selective Scanning 137
5.5.2 Caching 138
5.6 Implementation 142
5.6.1 The HostAP Driver 142
5.7 Measurements 142
5.7.1 Experimental Setup 142
5.7.2 The Environment 142
5.7.3 Experiments 143
5.8 Measurement Results 143
5.8.1 Handoff Time 143
5.8.2 Packet Loss 143
5.9 Conclusions and Future Work 146
6 Mobility Optimization Techniques 149
6.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 149
6.1.1 Discovery 149
6.1.2 Authentication 150
6.1.3 Layer 3 Configuration 151
6.1.4 Layer 3 Security Association 152
6.1.5 Binding Update 152
6.1.6 Media Rerouting 153
6.1.7 Route Optimization 154
6.1.8 Media-Independent Cross-Layer Triggers 155
6.2 Introduction 156
6.3 Discovery 156
6.3.1 Key Principles 156
6.3.2 Related Work 157
6.3.3 Application Layer Discovery 158
6.3.4 Experimental Results and Analysis 161
6.4 Authentication 164
6.4.1 Key Principles 166
6.4.2 Related Work 166
6.4.3 Network-Layer-Assisted Preauthentication 169
6.4.4 Experimental Results and Analysis 173
6.5 Layer 3 Configuration 177
6.5.1 Key Principles 179
6.5.2 Related Work 180
6.5.3 Router-Assisted Duplicate Address Detection 180
6.5.4 Proactive IP Address Configuration 180
6.5.5 Experimental Results and Analysis 183
6.6 Layer 3 Security Association 183
6.6.1 Key Principles 184
6.6.2 Related Work 184
6.6.3 Anchor-Assisted Security Association 184
6.6.4 Experimental Results and Analysis 187
6.7 Binding Update 190
6.7.1 Key Principles 191
6.7.2 Related Work 191
6.7.3 Hierarchical Binding Update 192
6.7.4 Experimental Results and Analysis 195
6.7.5 Proactive Binding Update 199
6.8 Media Rerouting 199
6.8.1 Key Principles 200
6.8.2 Related Work 200
6.8.3 Data Redirection Using Forwarding Agent 201
6.8.4 Mobility-Proxy-Assisted Time-Bound Data Redirection 202
6.8.5 Time-Bound Localized Multicasting 205
6.9 Media Buffering 210
6.9.1 Key Principles 211
6.9.2 Related Work 211
6.9.3 Protocol for Edge Buffering 212
6.9.4 Experimental Results and Analysis 215
6.9.5 Analysis of the Trade-off between Buffering Delay and Packet Loss 219
6.10 Route Optimization 220
6.10.1 Key Principles 221
6.10.2 Related Work 221
6.10.3 Maintaining a Direct Path by Application Layer Mobility 221
6.10.4 Interceptor-Assisted Packet Modifier at the End Point 222
6.10.5 Intercepting Proxy-Assisted Route Optimization 224
6.10.6 Cost Analysis and Experimental Analysis 226
6.10.7 Binding-Cache-Based Route Optimization 229
6.11 Media-Independent Cross-Layer Triggers 232
6.11.1 Key Principles 232
6.11.2 Related Work 232
6.11.3 Media Independent Handover Function 233
6.11.4 Faster Link-Down Detection Scheme 238
6.12 Concluding Remarks 241
7 Optimization with Multilayer Mobility Protocols 243
7.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 243
7.2 Introduction 244
7.3 Key Principles 245
7.4 Related Work 245
7.5 Multilayer Mobility Approach 246
7.5.1 Policy-Based Mobility Protocols: SIP and MIP-LR 247
7.5.2 Integration of SIP and MIP-LR with MMP 248
7.5.3 Integration of Global Mobility Protocol with Micromobility Protocol 250
7.5.4 Implementation of Multilayer Mobility Protocols 250
7.5.5 Implementation and Performance Issues 252
7.6 Concluding Remarks 255
8 Optimizations for Simultaneous Mobility 257
8.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 257
8.2 Introduction 258
8.2.1 Analysis of Simultaneous Mobility 258
8.3 Illustration of the Simultaneous Mobility Problem 260
8.4 Related Work 262
8.5 Key Optimization Techniques 262
8.6 Analytical Framework 262
8.6.1 Fundamental Concepts 262
8.6.2 Handoff Sequences 263
8.6.3 Binding Updates 264
8.6.4 Location Proxies and Binding Update Proxies 265
8.7 Analyzing the Simultaneous Mobility Problem 267
8.8 Probability of Simultaneous Mobility 270
8.9 Solutions 272
8.9.1 Soft Handoff 273
8.9.2 Receiver-Side Mechanisms 273
8.9.3 Sender-Side Mechanisms 275
8.10 Application of Solution Mechanisms 276
8.10.1 Mobile IPv6 277
8.10.2 MIP-LR 279
8.10.3 SIP-Based Mobility 280
8.11 Concluding Remarks 282
9 Handoff Optimization for Multicast Streaming 285
9.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 285
9.2 Introduction 286
9.3 Key Principles 289
9.4 Related Work 290
9.5 Mobility in a Hierarchical Multicast Architecture 291
9.5.1 Channel Announcement 293
9.5.2 Channel Management 293
9.5.3 Channel Tuning 293
9.5.4 Local Advertisement Insertion 294
9.5.5 Channel Monitor 294
9.5.6 Security 295
9.6 Optimization Techniques for Multicast Media Delivery 296
9.6.1 Reactive Triggering 296
9.6.2 Proactive Triggering 297
9.6.3 Triggering during Configuration of a Mobile 298
9.7 Experimental Results and Performance Analysis 299
9.7.1 Experimental Results 299
9.7.2 Performance Analysis 302
9.8 Concluding Remarks 305
10 Cooperative Roaming 307
10.1 Introduction 307
10.2 Related Work 309
10.3 IP Multicast Addressing 310
10.4 Cooperative Roaming 311
10.4.1 Overview 311
10.4.2 L2 Cooperation Protocol 312
10.4.3 L3 Cooperation Protocol 313
10.5 Cooperative Authentication 314
10.5.1 Overview of IEEE 802.1x 314
10.5.2 Cooperation in the Authentication Process 315
10.5.3 Relay Process 316
10.6 Security 318
10.6.1 Security Issues in Roaming 318
10.6.2 Cooperative Authentication and Security 319
10.7 Streaming Media Support 320
10.8 Bandwidth and Energy Usage 320
10.9 Experiments 321
10.9.1 Environment 321
10.9.2 Implementation Details 322
10.9.3 Experimental Setup 322
10.9.4 Results 323
10.10 Application Layer Mobility 328
10.11 Load Balancing 329
10.12 Multicast and Scalability 330
10.13 An Alternative to Multicast 330
10.14 Conclusions and Future Work 331
11 System Evaluation 333
11.1 Summary of Key Contributions and Indicative Results 333
11.2 Introduction 334
11.3 Experimental Validation 334
11.3.1 The Media Independent Preauthentication Framework 334
11.3.2 Intratechnology Handoff 338
11.3.3 Intertechnology Handoff 340
11.3.4 Cross-Layer-Trigger-Assisted Preauthentication 342
11.3.5 Mobile-Initiated Handover with 802.21 Triggers 344
11.3.6 Network-Initiated Handover with 802.21 Triggers 345
11.3.7 Handover Preparation Time 346
11.4 Handoff Optimization in IP Multimedia Subsystem 350
11.4.1 Nonoptimized Handoff Mode 350
11.4.2 Optimization with Reactive Context Transfer 351
11.4.3 Optimization with Proactive Security Context Transfer 352
11.4.4 Performance Results 353
11.5 Systems Validation Using Petri-Net-Based Models 355
11.5.1 MATLAB®-Based Modeling of Handoff Functions 356
11.5.2 Petri-Net-Based Model for Optimized Security Association 360
11.5.3 Petri-Net-Based Model for Hierarchical Binding Update 361
11.5.4 Petri-Net-Based Model for Media Redirection of In-Flight Data 362
11.5.5 Petri-Net-Based Model of Optimized Configuration 364
11.5.6 Petri-Net-Based Model for Multicast Mobility 364
11.6 Scheduling Handoff Operations 365
11.6.1 Sequential Scheduling 366
11.6.2 Concurrent Scheduling 368
11.6.3 Proactive Scheduling 368
11.7 Verification of Systems Performance 369
11.7.1 Cycle-Time-Based Approach 369
11.7.2 Using the Floyd Algorithm 370
11.8 Petri-Net-Based Modeling for Multi-Interface Mobility 371
11.8.1 Multihoming Scenario 371
11.8.2 Break-Before-Make Scenario 372
11.8.3 Make-Before-Break Scenario 372
11.8.4 MATLAB®-Based Petri Net Modeling for Multi-Interface Mobility 372
11.9 Deadlocks in Handoff Scheduling 374
11.9.1 Handoff Schedules with Deadlocks 375
11.9.2 Deadlock Prevention and Avoidance in Handoff Schedules 377
11.10 Analysis of Level of Concurrency and Resources 380
11.11 Trade-off Analysis for Proactive Handoff 385
11.12 Concluding Remarks 389
12 Conclusions 391
12.1 General Principles of Mobility Optimization 391
12.2 Summary of Contributions 393
12.3 Future Work 394
A RDF Schema for Application Layer Discovery 395
A.1 Schema Primitives 395
B Definitions of Mobility-Related Terms 399
References 409
Index 425
List of Abbreviations
1G First-generation cellular network. 1G networks are based on analog systems meant to carry voice only. These were developed around 1980. NMT, AMPS, and TACS are examples of 1G systems. 2G Second-generation cellular network. 2G networks are an evolution of 1G networks that was introduced during the 1990s. 2G networks are digital in nature and provide a per-user bandwidth of up to 144 kb/s. GSM, IS-54/136, and IS-95 are examples of 2G systems. 3G Third-generation cellular network. 3G networks can provide a per-user bandwidth of up to 2 Mb/s and can carry multimedia traffic. WCDMA and CDMA2000 are examples of 3G systems. 3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project. A collaborative effort by a group of telecommunications associations to define the standards for 3G networks and for the development of WCDMA/UMTS. 3GPP2 Third Generation Partnership Project 2. The standards body and organization that coordinates the development of 3G networks based on CDMA2000. 4G Fourth-generation cellular network. 4G networks are an evolution of 2G and 3G cellular networks; they are being defined as part of IMT-2000 and can provide a per-user bandwidth of up to 100 Mb/s. AAA Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting. AAA is a generic model for IP network access control, initiated and developed by the IETF (de Laat et al., 2000). AH Authentication Header. The AH is a component of the IPSec protocol suite (Kent and Seo, 2005) that guarantees connectionless integrity and data origin authentication of IP datagrams. AKA Authentication and Key Agreement. The AKA process is a challenge—response-based mechanism aimed at mutual network/terminal authentication and security key distribution (Niemi et al., 2002). AMT Automatic Multicast Tunneling. AMT allows multicast communication amongst isolated multicast-enabled sites or hosts, attached to a network which has no native multicast support (Thaler et al., 2007). ANSI American National Standards Institute. ANSI is responsible for overseeing the development of voluntary consensus standards for products and services in the United States. ARP Address Resolution Protocol. This is the process of finding out a host's link layer address when only a network layer address is given (Plummer, 1982). AuC Authentication Center. An AuC is a database used to control the authentication process and compare users' identifications with those recognized as valid by the network in a GSM or UMTS network. AVP Attribute—Value Pair. The AVP is a fundamental data representation in computing systems and applications. It is a data structure that allows future extension without modifying existing code or data. B2BUA Back-to-Back User Agent. A B2BUA consists of two SIP user agents, where one can initiate a call and the other modifies and terminates the call. A B2BUA can act as a third party call controller and can establish a call between two user agents. BCCH Broadcast Control CHannel. A BCCH is a point-to-multipoint, unidirectional downlink channel used in the GSM cellular standard. BCP Buffer Control Protocol. Using a buffer control protocol (Dutta et al., 2006e), a mobile node communicates with buffering nodes in a network to reduce packet loss during handoff by adjusting the buffer value dynamically. BN Buffering Node. A buffering node is a logical entity in a network that allows the buffering of packets during a handoff. BSC Base Station Controller. Part of a network that controls one or more base stations, and interfaces with the switching center (e.g., the MSC in a GSM network). BSS Base Station Subsystem. The overall system that encompasses the BTS and BSC and takes care of handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. A BSS is typically used in 2G and 3G networks. BSSID Basic Service Set IDentifier. This uniquely identifies each basic service set. The BSSID is the MAC address of an 802.11 wireless access point. BTS Base Transceiver Station. The base station equipment used to transmit and receive signals to and from mobile handsets. CARD Candidate Access Router Discovery. A protocol (Liebsch et al., 2005) that provides a network discovery mechanism in layer 3 by way of signaling exchanges between the routers in the previous and target networks. CDMA Code Division Multiple Access. A wireless access mechanism defined for 2G and 3G networks. CDN Content Distribution Network. A CDN is a system of computers containing copies of data, placed at various points in a network so as to maximize the bandwidth for access to the data from clients throughout the network. CGMP Cisco Group Management Protocol. CGMP (Farinacci et al., 1996) is a Cisco proprietary group management protocol that manages the multicast groups in layer 2. CoTI Care-of Test Init. In MIPv6, a mobile node uses a CoTI message to initiate the return routability procedure and request a care-of keygen token from a correspondent node. CS Circuit Switch. The CS domain is a subset of a 2G/GSM or 3G/UMTS core network domain dedicated to the support of circuit-based services such as voice calls. CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance. A mobile uses this mechanism to get access to IEEE 802.11-type networks. CTN Candidate Target Network. A CTN is one of the possible network attachment points where a mobile might move to. DAD Duplicate Address Detection. A process of verifying the uniqueness of a layer 3 identifier, which is an IP address in a subnet. This is often carried out during the layer 3 configuration process (Narten et al., 1998). DCDP Dynamic Configuration Distribution Protocol. DCDP is a protocol that works in conjunction with DRCP to configure servers with a block of addresses that can be distributed to the end clients (McAuley et al., 2001). DEDS Discrete-Event Dynamic System. A DEDS (Cao and Ho, 1990) may be viewed as a sequence of events. The completion of an activity may initiate one or more new activities. The order of the sequence of events is not necessarily unique. DMZ DeMilitarized Zone. In computer security, a DMZ is a physical or logical subnetwork that contains an organization's external services and exposes them to a larger, untrusted network, usually the Internet. DRCP Dynamic Rapid Configuration Protocol. A lightweight version of DHCP that reduces the number of messages over the air and the message size, thereby reducing the configuration time (McAuley et al., 2001). DTTPN Deterministic Timed-Transition Petri Net. A type of timed-transition Petri net where each of the transitions is associated with a deterministic firing time (Ramamoorthy and Ho, 1980). EAP Extensible Authentication Protocol. An authentication framework (Aboba et al., 2004) that supports multiple authentication methods and can run directly over data link layers such as PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) or IEEE 802 without requiring IP. EPC Evolved Packet Core. See the definition of SAE. EPS Evolved Packet System. ESN Electronic Serial Number. A 32-bit identifier used mainly with AMPS, TDMA, and CDMA phones in the United States; compare with the IMEI numbers used by all GSM phones. ESP Encapsulating Security Payload. ESP (Kent and Atkinson, 1998a) is a member of the IPSec protocol suite that provides origin authenticity, integrity, and confidentiality protection of packets. FA Foreign Agent. This acts as a decapsulation agent in a Mobile IPv4 network. FACH Forward Access CHannel. A downlink access channel that carries control information to terminals known to be located in a given cell in a GSM network. FEC Forward Error Correction. A system of error control for data transmission, whereby...
