
Quantum Blockchain
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While addressing the security challenges and threats in blockchain, this book is also an introduction to quantum cryptography for engineering researchers and students in the realm of information security.
Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. By utilizing unique quantum features of nature, quantum cryptography methods offer everlasting security.
The applicability of quantum cryptography is explored in this book. It describes the state-of-the-art of quantum blockchain techniques and sketches how they can be implemented in standard communication infrastructure. Highlighting a wide range of topics such as quantum cryptography, quantum blockchain, post-quantum blockchain, and quantum blockchain in Industry 4.0, this book also provides the future research directions of quantum blockchain in terms of quantum resilience, data management, privacy issues, sustainability, scalability, and quantum blockchain interoperability. Above all, it explains the mathematical ideas that underpin the methods of post-quantum cryptography security.
Readers will find in this book a comprehensiveness of the subject including:
* The key principles of quantum computation that solve the factoring issue.
* A discussion of a variety of potential post-quantum public-key encryption and digital signature techniques.
* Explanations of quantum blockchain in cybersecurity, healthcare, and Industry 4.0.
Audience
The book is for security analysts, data scientists, vulnerability analysts, professionals, academicians, researchers, industrialists, and students working in the fields of (quantum) blockchain, cybersecurity, cryptography, and artificial intelligence with regard to smart cities and Internet of Things.
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Persons
Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, PhD, is a Professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering at Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. He has contributed around 25 authored and edited books on various technologies, 17 patents, and more than 40 articles and papers in various refereed journals and international conferences. He is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Vani Rajasekar, is an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Kongu Engineering College, India, and is pursuing her PhD in information and communication engineering. She has authored and co-authored around 40 international and national journals, books, and book chapters.
SK Hafizul Islam, PhD, is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
Balamurugan Balusamy, PhD, is a professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. He is a Pioneer Researcher in the areas of big data and the IoT and has published more than 70 articles in various top international journals.
Ching-Hsien Hsu, PhD, is Chair Professor of the College of Information and Electrical Engineering; Director of Big Data Research Center, Asia University, Taiwan. He is the Chair of the IEEE Technical Committee on Cloud Computing (TCCLD) and Fellow of the IET.
Content
Preface xix
1 Introduction to Classical Cryptography 1
Vani Rajasekar, Premalatha J., Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj and Oana Geman
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Substitution Ciphers 2
1.3 Transposition Cipher 8
1.4 Symmetric Encryption Technique 10
1.5 Asymmetric Encryption Technique 17
1.6 Digital Signatures 22
References 28
2 Quantum Cryptographic Techniques 31
Malathy S., Santhiya M. and Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
2.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography 32
2.2 Strength of Quantum Cryptography 32
2.3 Working Principle of Quantum Cryptography 32
2.4 Example of Quantum Cryptography 33
2.5 Fundamentals of Quantum Cryptography 34
2.6 Problems With the One-Time Pad and Key Distribution 35
2.7 Quantum No-Cloning Property 36
2.8 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 37
2.9 Quantum Key Distribution 38
2.10 Cybersecurity Risks Prevailing in Current Cryptographic Techniques 39
2.11 Implementation of Quantum-Safe Cryptography 40
2.12 Practical Usage of Existing QKD Solutions 41
2.13 Attributes of Quantum Key Distribution 41
2.14 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols 44
2.15 Applications of Quantum Cryptography 49
2.16 Conclusion 52
References 52
3 Evolution of Quantum Blockchain 55
Dinesh Komarasamy and Jenita Hermina J.
3.1 Introduction of Blockchain 55
3.2 Introduction of Quantum Computing 62
3.3 Restrictions of Blockchain Quantum 65
3.4 Post-Quantum Cryptography Features 72
3.5 Quantum Cryptography 73
3.6 Comparison Between Traditional and Quantum-Resistant Cryptosystems 76
3.7 Quantum Blockchain Applications 77
3.8 Blockchain Applications 77
3.9 Limitations of Blockchain 78
3.10 Conclusion 79
References 79
4 Development of the Quantum Bitcoin (BTC) 83
Gaurav Dhuriya, Aradhna Saini and Prashant Johari
4.1 Introduction of BTC 84
4.2 Extract 87
4.3 Preservation 89
4.4 The Growth of BTC 97
4.5 Quantum Computing (History and Future) 98
4.6 Quantum Computation 99
4.7 The Proposal of Quantum Calculation 101
4.8 What Are Quantum Computers and How They Exertion? 102
4.9 Post-Quantum Cryptography 104
4.10 Difficulties Facing BTC 105
4.11 Conclusion 106
References 107
5 A Conceptual Model for Quantum Blockchain 109
Vijayalakshmi P., Abraham Dinakaran and Korhan Cengiz
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Distributed Ledger Technology 110
5.3 Hardware Composition of the Quantum Computer 115
5.4 Framework Styles of Quantum Blockchain 115
5.5 Fundamental Integrants 122
5.6 Conclusion 124
References 124
6 Challenges and Research Perspective of Post-Quantum Blockchain 127
Venu K. and Krishnakumar B.
6.1 Introduction 128
6.2 Post-Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems 136
6.3 Post-Quantum Blockchain Performance Comparison 154
6.4 Future Scopes of Post-Quantum Blockchain 168
6.5 Conclusion 170
References 170
7 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 173
K. Tamil Selvi and R. Thamilselvan
7.1 Introduction 174
7.2 Basics of Blockchain 174
7.3 Quantum and Post-Quantum Cryptography 177
7.4 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 180
7.5 Other Cryptosystems for Post-Quantum Blockchain 195
7.6 Conclusion 196
References 199
8 Post-Quantum Confidential Transaction Protocols 201
R. Manjula Devi, P. Keerthika, P. Suresh, R. Venkatesan, M. Sangeetha, C. Sagana and K. Devendran
8.1 Introduction 201
8.2 Confidential Transactions 202
8.3 Zero-Knowledge Protocol 203
8.4 Zero-Knowledge Protocols 212
8.5 Transformation Methods 216
8.6 Conclusion 217
References 218
9 A Study on Post-Quantum Blockchain: The Next Innovation for Smarter and Safer Cities 221
G.K. Kamalam and R.S. Shudapreyaa
9.1 Blockchain: The Next Big Thing in Smart City Technology 222
9.2 Application of Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities 226
9.3 Using Blockchain to Secure Smart Cities 228
9.4 Blockchain Public Key Security 231
9.5 Quantum Threats on Blockchain Enabled Smart City 233
9.6 Post-Quantum Blockchain-Based Smart City Solutions 235
9.7 Quantum Computing Fast Evolution 236
9.8 Conclusion 238
References 239
10 Quantum Protocols for Hash-Based Blockchain 241
Sathya K., Premalatha J., Balamurugan Balusamy and Sarumathi Murali
10.1 Introduction 242
10.2 Consensus Protocols 242
10.3 Quantum Blockchain 246
10.4 Quantum Honest-Success Byzantine Agreement (QHBA) Protocol 255
10.5 MatRiCT Protocol 258
10.6 Conclusion 261
References 261
11 Post-Quantum Blockchain-Enabled Services in Scalable Smart Cities 263
Kumar Prateek and Soumyadev Maity
11.1 Introduction 264
11.2 Preliminaries 267
11.3 Related Work 273
11.4 Background of Proposed Work 274
11.5 Proposed Work 278
11.6 Conclusion 287
References 288
12 Security Threats and Privacy Challenges in the Quantum Blockchain: A Contemporary Survey 293
K. Sentamilselvan, Suresh P., Kamalam G. K., Muthukrishnan H., Logeswaran K. and Keerthika P.
12.1 Introduction 294
12.2 Types of Blockchain 297
12.3 Quantum Blockchain: State of the Art 298
12.4 Voting Protocol 303
12.5 Security and Privacy Issues in Quantum Blockchain 306
12.6 Challenges and Research Perspective in Quantum Blockchain 308
12.7 Security Threats in Quantum Blockchain 310
12.8 Applications of Quantum Blockchain 311
12.9 Characteristics of Post-Quantum Blockchain Schemes 313
12.10 Conclusion 314
References 314
13 Exploration of Quantum Blockchain Techniques Towards Sustainable Future Cybersecurity 317
H. Muthukrishnan, P. Suresh, K. Logeswaran and K. Sentamilselvan
13.1 Introduction to Blockchain 318
13.2 Insights on Quantum Computing 322
13.3 Quantum Computing Algorithms 332
13.4 Quantum Secured Blockchain 333
13.5 Conclusion 339
References 339
14 Estimation of Bitcoin Price Trends Using Supervised Learning Approaches 341
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
14.1 Introduction 341
14.2 Related Work 343
14.3 Methodology 344
14.4 Implementation of the Proposed Work 349
14.5 Results Evaluation and Discussion 352
14.6 Conclusion 353
References 353
Index 357
1
Introduction to Classical Cryptography
Vani Rajasekar1*, Premalatha J.2, Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj3 and Oana Geman4
1Department of CSE, Kongu Engineering College, Tamil Nadu, India
2Department of IT, Kongu Engineering College, Tamil Nadu, India
3School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India
4Department of Health and Human Development Computers, University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania
Abstract
In today's world, with societies of information that transmits a growing number of personal data via public channels, the protection of information is a global challenge. It is the technique used to authenticate users among two parties in the public environment, where there are unauthorized users and suspicious activities. Two types of process involved in classical cryptography are encryption and decryption, which are performed at the sender and receiver sides, respectively. Encryption is the method by which legible data or plain text is combined with key (additional information) and converted into an illegible data or cipher text. Decryption is the method by which cipher text is again transformed to plain text. Classical cryptography depends on mathematics and on the complexity of computing factorization in large numbers. The two major categories of classical cryptography are symmetric key cryptography and asymmetric key cryptography. In symmetric classical, both encryption and decryption are done using same key called private key [1]. In asymmetric classical, the sender uses public key to encrypt the message and the receiver uses private key to decrypt the message. The most widely used conventional cryptographic scheme is Data Encryption Standard (DES), Advanced Data Encryption Standard (AES), and Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA). These algorithms have a primary advantage of flexibility and their protection, based on computational and validated security claims. The disadvantage relies on security of protocols against adversary.
Message authentication code (MAC) plays an important role in classical cryptography. MAC value ensures the authenticity and data privacy of message, and it will detect any changes in the transformed messages. Secure Hash Algorithm, also known as SHA, is a family of cryptographic approaches that is used to keep the information secured [2]. SHA and MAC functions generally include bitwise operations, compression functions, and modular operations. All cryptographic approaches should fulfill the security features such as confidentiality, integrity, privacy, reliability, authentication, and non-repudiation. Cryptography tools are far more effective in the instances of signatures confirmation, user authentication, and to conduct other cryptography practices. The most extensively used classical cryptographic tools are security token, Java Cryptographic Libraries (JCA), Docker, and authentication keys. The major applications of cryptography implies banking, digital currencies, military communications, secure network communications, disk encryption, health care, education, software, and marketing.
Keywords: Security, cryptography, authentication, privacy, key agreement
1.1 Introduction
The term "cryptography" is used to refer to the branch of science that sprang from historical secret writing. Secret writing is just one of many challenges for which cryptography has provided a solution. Cryptographic primitives relate to the answers to various cryptographic difficulties. The term "symmetric encryption" relates to a cipher in which the transmitter and receiver maintain a common secret key, allowing them to exchange a message in such a way that an adversary cannot decipher the message even if he witnesses it. In cybersecurity, a classical cipher is a form of encryption that has been employed in the past but has mostly fallen out of favors. Most classical ciphers, unlike modern cryptographic techniques, can be effectively calculated and decoded manually. However, with technological advances, they are usually fairly easy to break. The various classical ciphers are substitution cipher and transposition cipher.
1.2 Substitution Ciphers
A substitution cipher is a type of encryption in which plaintext elements are substituted with cipher text in a predetermined order using a key. The key units can be single letters, groups of letters, triplets of letters, combinations of the above, and so on. To retrieve the original message, the receiver uses the reverse substitution technique to decrypt the text. The plaintext elements are reorganized in a different, generally very complex order in a transposition cipher, but the elements themselves remain unaffected [3]. In a substitution cipher, on the other hand, the plaintext elements are kept in the same order in the cipher text, but the values themselves are changed.
1.2.1 Caesar Cipher
Caesar cipher, also referred as the shift cipher, Caesar's coding, or Caesar shifting, is among the most basic and extensively used encryption algorithms. It is a substitution cipher where each letter in the plaintext is chosen to replace that is a certain number of places down the alphabet. The conversion can be visualized by aligning the alphabets. The cipher letter is the plain letter rotated by a certain range of positions left or right. For example, here, a Caesar cipher uses a three-place left rotation, which is identical to a three-place right shift.
Encryption:
The encryption can alternatively be described using modular arithmetic by converting the letters into integers using the A = 0, B = 1, ., Z = 25 technique. The mathematical formula for encrypting a letter x with a shift n is
(1.1)Similarly, the decryption is
(1.2)In a cipher text-only environment, the Caesar cipher is easily broken. There are two scenarios to consider:
- An attacker is aware that a simple substitution cipher has been employed.
- An attacker recognizes the presence of a Caesar cipher but is unaware of the shifting value.
1.2.2 Polyalphabetic Cipher
Any cipher based on substitution that uses numerous substitution alphabets is known as a polyalphabetic cipher. Although it is a reduced particular case, the Vigenère cipher is possibly the best illustration of a polyalphabetic encryption [4].
1.2.2.1 Working of Polyalphabetic Cipher
- Select a keyword
- Construct the Vigenère table as shown in Figure 1.1.
- Write the key for plain text
- For each letter of plain text and a letter in key, look at the Vigenère table
- Trace down all the letters and finally write the cipher text
Figure 1.1 Vigenère table.
Example:
Key: KEYKEYE
Plain text: TRYTHIS
Then, based on the steps described above and from the Vigenère table, it is identified that the cipher text as follows:
Cipher: DVWDLGW
1.2.2.2 Cracking of Cipher Text
- Look for repeated sequences of letters in the ciphertext; the longer the sequences, the stronger. Make a note of where they are by underlining or marking them in the some fashion [5, 6].
- Determine how many letters are between the first letters in the string and add one for each appearance of a repetitive string.
- Factor the number obtained in above calculation.
- Create a table of common components by repeating this method with each repeated string that has found. The length of the phrase used to encrypt the cipher text is perhaps the most common factor.
- Count the number of times each letter appears in the cipher text. There should be n separate frequency counts in the end.
- To determine exactly how much each letter was displaced, compare these counts to regular frequency distribution.
- Shift should be undoing and the message can be read.
1.2.3 Hill Cipher
Hill cipher is a linear algebra-based polygraph substitution cipher. A value modulo 26 is assigned to each letter. The basic scheme A = 0, B = 1, ., Z = 25 is frequently employed, although it is not a requirement of the encryption [7]. Encryption is done by multiplying plain text matrix with the key matrix as nXn. The decryption is done by inverting the key matrix and it should be multiplied with cipher text to produce the plain text.
Example: Encryption
Plain text: ACT
Key: GYBNQKURP
Cipher Text: POH
Example: Decryption
Cipher Text: POH
Find the inverse of key as follows:
Plain Text: ACT
1.2.4 Playfair Cipher
The Playfair cipher was the very first digraph stream cipher to be used in practice. Unlike standard ciphers, Playfair cipher encrypts a pair of alphabets (digraphs) rather than a single alphabet. It starts by generating a 5*5 matrix key table. The matrix comprises alphabets that serve as the plaintext's encryption key. It is important to remember that no alphabet should be duplicated. Another thing to keep in mind is that there are 26 alphabets and only 25 blocks to fit a letter into. The message is encrypted digraph by digraph with the Playfair cipher. As a result, the Playfair cipher might be considered a digraph substitution cipher [8, 9].
1.2.4.1 Rules for Encrypting the Playfair Cipher
- To begin, divide the plaintext...
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