
Forensic Psychology
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Content
- Intro
- BRIEF CONTENTS
- CONTENTS
- LIST OF FIGURES
- LIST OF TABLES
- LIST OF FEATURES
- ABOUT THE AUTHOR
- TOUR OF THE BOOK
- DIGITAL RESOURCES
- PREFACE
- TO THE STUDENT
- How to use this book
- How this book is organised
- TO THE INSTRUCTOR
- Pedagogical approaches
- Critical thinking and applications
- The fact versus fiction approach
- Real-world examples
- Content support
- Why is a new approach to forensic psychology needed?
- AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- PART I WHAT IS FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY?
- CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY?
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- WHAT IS FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY?
- Why do we need forensic psychology?
- Defining forensic psychology
- APPLY IT
- Criminology
- Crime scene investigation
- Forensic science
- The origins of forensic psychology
- Psychology in the laboratory
- Psychology in the courtroom
- IN SUMMARY
- THE ROOTS OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
- Psychological perspectives
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Applying psychological perspectives
- CASE STUDY
- IN SUMMARY
- THINKING LIKE A SCIENTIST
- CASE STUDY
- The need for scientific reasoning
- Characteristics of scientific thinking
- Scepticism
- Open-mindedness
- Objectivity
- Why do we believe in 'lunacy'?
- Empiricism
- Apophenia
- Becoming better consumers of research
- IN SUMMARY
- ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST
- The roles of the forensic psychologist
- Clinical role
- Comparing clinical and forensic evaluation
- Fitness to stand trial assessments
- Risk assessment
- Victimology and victim services
- Sexual offenders
- Child custody evaluations
- Criminal profiling
- Experimental role
- Scientific jury selection
- Eyewitness research
- Detecting deception
- Actuarial role
- Offender assessment
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Crime analysis
- Advisory role
- Police psychology
- Expert witness
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Michael Shermer
- Corine de Ruiter
- Patricia Zapf
- PART II GETTING ACCURATE INFORMATION
- CHAPTER 2 TECHNIQUES FOR INTERVIEWING EYEWITNESSES
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- WHY ARE EYEWITNESS REPORTS SO PERSUASIVE?
- CASE STUDY
- How memories are made
- The reconstructive nature of memory
- IN SUMMARY
- INTERVIEWING EYEWITNESSES (INFORMATION GENERATION)
- The standard interview
- Problems with the standard interview
- Overuse of closed-ended questions
- Frequent interruptions
- Repeating questions and using leading questions
- Egocentric questioning strategies
- Contaminating the eyewitness memory of crimes
- The cognitive interview
- The psychology behind the cognitive interview
- Encoding specificity
- Multiple-trace theory
- Schema theory
- The seven phases of the cognitive interview
- Phase 1: Establish a rapport with the witness
- Phase 2: Transferring control to the witness
- Phase 3: Reporting an open narrative
- Phase 4: Open-question probes
- Phase 5: Context restatement
- APPLY IT
- Phase 6: Changing perspectives
- Phase 7: Changing chronological order
- Is the cognitive interview effective?
- Criticisms of the cognitive interview
- IN SUMMARY
- IS THE LIVE LINE-UP DEAD? IMPROVING EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES
- Typical identification procedures
- System and estimator variables
- System variables
- Pre-line-up instructions
- Line-up construction and fairness
- Foil bias
- Clothing
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Presentation method
- Sequential presentation
- Simultaneous presentation
- Investigator bias
- Estimator variables
- Effect of post-event information on witness confidence
- Disguise
- Gender differences
- Age
- Intellectual challenges
- Racial differences
- Alcohol intoxication
- The effect of stress
- Weapon focus
- CASE STUDY
- IN SUMMARY
- THE ROLE OF THE FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Elizabeth Loftus
- Becky Milne
- Amina Memon
- CHAPTER 3 TECHNIQUES FOR INTERVIEWING CHILDREN
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- ARE CHILDREN GOOD WITNESSES?
- CASE STUDY
- What does it mean to be a vulnerable witness?
- Exposure to adverse childhood experiences
- How is a child determined 'competent' and 'credible' to stand trial?
- Are children good observers?
- The origins of the myth that children make poor witnesses
- Childhood memory and amnesia
- APPLY IT
- When do we learn to lie?
- IN SUMMARY
- BEST PRACTICES WHEN INTERVIEWING CHILDREN
- CASE STUDY
- The role of the interviewer
- Leading and suggestive questions
- Compliance pressure
- Use of reinforcement for responses
- Repetitive questioning and interviews
- Inviting speculation
- Confirmatory bias
- IN SUMMARY
- HOW TO CONDUCT A FORENSIC INTERVIEW
- Origins of the forensic interview
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Application of the NICHD Protocol
- Phase 1: Rapport building
- Phase 2: Establishing ground rules
- Phase 3: Substantive phase
- Phase 4: Closure phase
- Testing the effectiveness of the NICHD Protocol
- Remaining controversies and challenges
- IN SUMMARY
- MANAGING THE CHALLENGES OF COMPASSION FATIGUE
- Balancing forensic and therapeutic perspectives
- Psychological risks of compassion fatigue and secondary traumatisation
- Negative effects on forensic interviews
- Managing compassion fatigue and secondary traumatisation
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Michael E. Lamb
- Stephen Ceci
- Thomas D. Lyon
- CHAPTER 4 TECHNIQUES FOR INTERVIEWING VULNERABLE PEOPLE
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- RECOGNISING VULNERABLE PEOPLE
- Defining vulnerability
- Why is it important for police to recognise vulnerable persons?
- Legal competency to take part in the criminal process
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- IN SUMMARY
- PERSONS WITH COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS
- CASE STUDY
- Older adults as witnesses
- Exploitation of people with dementia
- Recognising the symptoms of Alzheimer's
- Interviewing strategies for people with cognitive impairment
- APPLY IT
- IN SUMMARY
- PEOPLE WITH SOCIAL COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENTS
- CASE STUDY
- Identifying the signs and symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
- Interviewing strategies for people with social communication challenges
- Preplanning stages of the interview
- Appropriate interview structure (question type and sequencing)
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Helping persons with ASD via registered intermediaries
- IN SUMMARY
- THE ROLES OF THE FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Gisli Gudjonsson
- Kelly Richards
- Uta Frith
- CHAPTER 5 INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS: FROM INTERROGATION TO INVESTIGATION
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- A BRIEF HISTORY OF GETTING INFORMATION FROM UNCOOPERATIVE SUSPECTS
- CASE STUDY
- The power of confession evidence
- Why are juries persuaded by confession evidence?
- The origins of psychological interrogation
- Can torture produce forensically useful information?
- The ticking bomb scenario
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- The ineffectiveness of enhanced interrogation techniques
- IN SUMMARY
- ADVERSARIAL VERSUS INQUISITORIAL APPROACHES
- Deception in the interrogation room
- How does an interrogation differ from an interview?
- Rights against self-incrimination
- CASE STUDY
- The Reid technique: an adversarial approach
- The nine steps of the Reid technique
- Step 1: Direct positive confrontation
- Step 2: Theme development
- Step 3: Handling denials
- Step 4: Overcoming objections
- Step 5: Maintaining the suspect's attention
- Step 6: Handling suspect's passive mood
- Step 7: Presenting an alternative question
- Step 8: Having suspect orally relate various details of the offence
- Step 9: Converting an oral confession into a written confession
- Does the Reid technique increase false confessions?
- The next stage in the evolution of interrogations: the PEACE model
- Planning and preparation
- Engage and explain
- Account (clarify and challenge)
- Closure
- Evaluate
- Is the PEACE procedure effective?
- Military use of rapport and persuasion strategies
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Strategies of rapport building
- IN SUMMARY
- FALSE CONFESSIONS AND THE PARADOX OF INNOCENCE
- The psychology of false confessions
- APPLY IT
- Why do innocent people confess?
- Laboratory evidence
- Types of false confessions
- Coerced-compliant false confessions
- Voluntary false confessions
- Coerced-internalised false confessions
- False confessions and mandatory recording of interrogations
- IN SUMMARY
- WHY CONFESSIONS OVERRULE INNOCENCE AND EVIDENCE
- Innocence as a vulnerability
- The corruptive power of confessions
- Redefining the role of the interrogator
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Saul Kassin
- Richard A. Leo
- Julia Shaw
- PART III GETTING TRUTHFUL INFORMATION
- CHAPTER 6 DETECTING CONCEALED INFORMATION AND DECEPTION
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- THE BEHAVIOUR OF LIES: DECODING BEHAVIOURAL DECEPTION
- CASE STUDY
- What makes a good liar?
- What are lies?
- The search for nonverbal cues of deception
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Mental process theories: emotion and cognition
- The effect of emotions on behaviour
- The effect of cognitive load on behaviour
- Why do we believe in nonverbal indicators of deception?
- APPLY IT
- IN SUMMARY
- THE TOOLS OF THE TRADE: THE POLYGRAPH
- CASE STUDY
- What the polygraph measures and how
- The control question test (CQT)
- Phase 1: Stimulation: pretest interview
- Phase 2: CQT testing
- Phase 3: Scoring and interpretation
- Criticisms of the CQT
- The guilty knowledge test (GKT)
- Criticism of the GKT
- Use of countermeasures
- Physical countermeasures
- Mental countermeasures
- Do countermeasures work?
- Admissibility in courts
- IN SUMMARY
- THE LANGUAGE OF LIES: DECODING VERBAL DECEPTION
- The Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) framework
- Strategic differences between liars and truth-tellers
- Suspect counter-interrogation strategies
- Tactical use of questions and disclosure strategies
- Support for the SUE method
- IN SUMMARY
- THE QUEST FOR A TRUTH MACHINE
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Can we measure intention?
- Exploring the next generation of truth machines
- Will these new lie detection technologies ever be legally admissible?
- Vulnerability to countermeasures
- The right to private thoughts
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Dan Ariely
- Aldert Vrij
- Sean O'Mara
- CHAPTER 7 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF OFFENDER PROFILING
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- BACKGROUND AND GOALS OF OFFENDER PROFILING
- CASE STUDY
- History and goals of psychological profiling
- The five 'Ws' of profiling
- What is a profile used for?
- When is a profile used?
- Why is profiling used?
- Where is profiling used?
- Who is qualified to profile?
- APPLY IT
- The profile creation process
- The current status of offender profiling
- IN SUMMARY
- CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIVE ANALYSIS (CIA)
- Generating an offender profile using CIA
- Stage 1: Data assimilation
- Stage 2: Crime scene classification
- Classifying motivations
- Classifying the organised/disorganised behaviours
- Stage 3: Crime scene reconstruction
- Stage 4: Profile generation
- Limitations of criminal investigative analysis
- IN SUMMARY
- INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY, GEOGRAPHIC PROFILING AND CRIME LINKAGE ANALYSIS
- Origins of investigative psychology
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Five approaches of investigative psychology
- Interpersonal coherence
- The significance of time and place
- Geographic profiling
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Criminal characteristics
- Criminal career
- Forensic awareness
- Crime linkage analysis
- Comparing criminal investigative analysis and investigative psychology
- IN SUMMARY
- OFFENDER PROFILING: VALUABLE INSIGHTS, COMMON SENSE OR PSEUDOSCIENCE?
- CASE STUDY
- When will offender profiling become an accepted science?
- How effective is offender profiling?
- Homology
- Behavioural consistency
- Behavioural distinctiveness
- Why is there still a belief in offender profiling?
- The power of a story
- Repetition of the message
- Reporting only successes
- Future directions of training and research in offender profiling
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- David Canter
- Richard N. Kocsis
- Kim Rossmo
- CHAPTER 8 ASSESSING FITNESS TO STAND TRIAL AND CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- ASSESSING FITNESS TO STAND TRIAL
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Fitness to stand trial across jurisdictions
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Why mental fitness matters
- How do forensic psychologists determine fitness to stand trial?
- Evaluation of Competency to Stand Trial-Revised (ECST-R)
- The Competency Screening Test (CST)
- The MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA)
- IN SUMMARY
- ASSESSING CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY
- CASE STUDY
- Mental states and criminal responsibility
- Evaluation of criminal responsibility and sanity
- Who is exempt from criminal responsibility?
- From determining criminal responsibility to determining 'sanity'
- Insanity defence legislation
- The wild beast standard
- The 'right versus wrong' standard
- Impact of the McNaughton rule
- APPLY IT
- Not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
- IN SUMMARY
- MALINGERING AND ITS DETECTION
- When does malingering occur?
- Clinical versus forensic settings
- The problem with labels
- CASE STUDY
- Ways of detecting malingering
- The forensic interview
- Psychiatric malingering detection strategies
- Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS-2)
- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF)
- Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M-FAST)
- Tests to detect cognitive malingering detection strategies
- The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM)
- Word Memory Test (WMT)
- IN SUMMARY
- NEUROSCIENCE AND THE INSANITY DEFENSE: DO BAD BRAINS CAUSE BAD BEHAVIOUR?
- CASE STUDY
- Diagnosing mental illness
- How will advances in neuroscience affect the insanity defence?
- Three examples of brain changes that led to behavioural changes
- Ways that neuroscience can improve and inform the concept of legal sanity
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Michael Perlin
- V.S. Ramachandran
- David Eagleman
- PART IV APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO FORENSIC TECHNIQUES
- CHAPTER 9 CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: RISK ASSESSMENT, THREAT AND RECIDIVISM
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF PUNISHMENT?
- CASE STUDY
- Punishment and behaviour change
- Theories of punishment
- Deterrence theory
- Three components of deterrence theory
- IN SUMMARY
- PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IMPRISONMENT AND INSTITUTIONALISATION
- American jails as modern-day asylums
- CASE STUDY
- Adaptation and change in the prison environment
- The effects of sensory and social isolation
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Suicide prevention and alternatives to solitary confinement
- Ineffectiveness of solitary confinement
- IN SUMMARY
- THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND EFFECTIVE PRISON REHABILITATION PROGRAMMES
- Rehabilitation programmes
- The ABC of rehabilitation programmes
- Affective-focused rehabilitation programmes
- The Good Lives Model (GLM)
- Behaviour-focused rehabilitation programmes
- Contingency management approaches
- Three examples of contingency management programmes in prisons
- Cognitive-based programmes
- APPLY IT
- Examples of CBT programmes
- Reasoning and rehabilitation
- Aggression replacement training
- Thinking for a change (T4C)
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- IN SUMMARY
- REDUCING RECIDIVISM: THE RISK-NEEDSRESPONSIVITY MODEL
- ASSESSING RECIDIVISM
- Assessing risk and needs factors
- The risk-needs-responsivity (RNR) model
- The rehabilitative principles of RNR
- Risk principle: Who should receive treatment?
- Needs principle: What needs should be addressed?
- Responsivity principle: How should services be delivered?
- Limitations of the RNR approach
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Yvonne Jewkes
- Ian O'Donnell
- Tony Ward
- CHAPTER 10 POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- POLICE USE OF FORCE
- CASE STUDY
- Reasonable versus excessive use of force
- Racial explanations for the use of force
- The social dynamics of police-civilian interactions
- A cycle of escalation
- Profiles of violence-prone officers
- When lethal force is unavoidable
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- IN SUMMARY
- THE ART OF CRISIS NEGOTIATION
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- The role of the police negotiator
- The Behavioural Influence Stairway Model (BISM)
- Step 1: Active listening
- Step 2: Empathy
- Step 3: Rapport
- Step 4: Influence
- Step 5: Behavioural change
- APPLY IT
- Hostage taker categories
- Hostile and aggressive hostage takers
- Hostage takers with mental illness
- Schizophrenia spectrum disorder
- Depression
- Antisocial personality disorder
- IN SUMMARY
- PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ACUTE STRESS ON PERFORMANCE
- CASE STUDY
- Acute stress and police performance
- Acute stress and perceptual distortions
- Auditory distortions
- Visual and attention distortions
- Motor coordination
- Time distortion
- Cognitive effects
- IN SUMMARY
- PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHRONIC STRESS ON PERFORMANCE
- CASE STUDY
- Sources of chronic stress
- The police culture
- Fitness-for-duty evaluations (FFDEs)
- Mental health symptoms following critical incident exposures
- Acute stress disorder (ASD)
- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
- Trauma intervention strategies
- Primary prevention strategies
- Secondary management strategies
- Tertiary reactive strategies
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Robert Sapolsky
- John Violanti
- Judith P. Andersen
- CHAPTER 11 THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND JURY DECISION MAKING
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- INVESTIGATING THE SECRET LIVES OF JURIES
- Why do we have juries?
- The vanishing jury trial: a global phenomenon
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- A brief history of trial by jury
- The secret lives of juries
- The Chicago Jury Project: the beginning (and end) of jury research
- CASE STUDY
- How is data collected about juries?
- Mock juries and simulated trials
- Post-verdict interviews
- Archival analysis of jury verdicts
- IN SUMMARY
- PREDICTING VERDICTS FROM JUROR CHARACTERISTICS
- Sources of jury bias
- Jury selection
- Jury demographics
- Jury-defendant similarity
- Sex and sexual orientation
- Race and ethnicity
- Difference in social cognition
- Emotional responses
- Implicit bias
- IN SUMMARY
- HOW INDIVIDUAL JURORS INTERPRET EVIDENCE
- Differences between judges and juries
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Strength of evidence
- The liberation hypothesis
- Psychological explanations for the liberation hypothesis
- The problems of pretrial publicity (PTP)
- CASE STUDY
- Juror comprehension of instructions
- Juror comprehension of scientific evidence
- IN SUMMARY
- THE STORY BEHIND JURY DELIBERATIONS
- Understanding evidence and decision alternatives
- The story model
- The ritual of jury deliberation
- Cognitive aspects of deliberation
- Collaborative inhibition
- Group polarisation
- APPLY IT
- The psychological roots of group polarisation
- The role of personality in jury deliberation
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Shari Seidman Diamond
- Liana Peter-Hagene
- Margaret Bull Kovera
- CHAPTER 12 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- IN SEARCH OF VIOLENT PATTERNS
- CASE STUDY
- Defining violence and aggression
- The problem with 'random' acts of violence
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Violence risk assessment
- Three generations of risk management tools
- First generation of risk assessment: unstructured clinical judgements
- Second generation of risk assessment: actuarial risk assessment instruments
- Third generation of risk assessment: structured professional judgement (SPJ)
- The future of violence risk assessment
- IN SUMMARY
- INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE
- CASE STUDY
- Psychological and physical consequences of intimate partner violence
- Why don't victims of intimate partner violence leave?
- Tactics of abuse
- Physical abuse
- Sexual abuse
- Psychological abuse
- Financial abuse
- Predictors of intimate partner violence
- IN SUMMARY
- MASS MURDER AND RISK ASSESSMENT
- What is a mass murder?
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- Leakage of threat intention
- APPLY IT
- Prevention by public reporting
- IN SUMMARY
- THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF TERRORISM
- The hidden world of Islamic State brides
- What is terrorism and violent extremism?
- What is radicalisation?
- A model of radicalisation
- Phase 1: Sensitisation to radical ideology
- Phase 2: Social cohesion
- Phase 3: Action
- Current approaches and future directions
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Stephen Pinker
- Rachel Jewkes
- Thomas A. Pyszczynski
- CHAPTER 13 FORENSIC VICTIMOLOGY
- Chapter Introduction
- Learning Outcomes
- FORENSIC VICTIMOLOGY
- What is forensic victimology?
- A brief history of victimology
- The golden age
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- The dark age
- Re-emergence of the victim
- Victim precipitation
- Predicting crime risk: the seven-factor model
- Reassurance-oriented victim type and risk of being stalked
- Anger-retaliatory, excitation and preservation-oriented victim types
- Preservation-oriented victim risks for intimate partner violence
- IN SUMMARY
- THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND VICTIM BLAMING
- CASE STUDY
- How do we assign blame?
- Explanations of victim blaming
- Cognitive dissonance
- The ideal victim theory
- The need for predictability
- The need for fairness and justice
- Can we reduce victim blaming?
- IN SUMMARY
- THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON VICTIMISATION
- CASE STUDY
- Cyberstalking
- Is cyberstalking different than offline stalking?
- APPLY IT
- Transitions between online and offline stalking
- Theories explaining cyberstalking
- The cyberstalking process
- Cyberstalking interventions
- IN SUMMARY
- SEARCHING FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL CLOSURE
- The Need for Closure Scale (NFCS)
- The false promise of closure
- The ultimate closure: the death penalty
- GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
- IN SUMMARY
- CHAPTER REVIEW
- NAMES TO KNOW
- Wayne Petherick
- Paul Bocij
- Pauline Boss
- GLOSSARY
- REFERENCES
- INDEX
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