Mobile Terminal Receiver Design
Description
MOBILE TERMINAL RECEIVER DESIGN LTE and LTE-Advanced
IndiaThis all-in-one guide addresses the challenges of designing innovative mobile handset solutions that offer smaller size, low power consumption, low cost, and tremendous flexibility, with improved data rates and higher performance. Readers are introduced to mobile phone system architecture and its basic building blocks, different air interface standards and operating principles, before progressing to hardware anatomy, software and protocols, and circuits for legacy and next-generation smart phones, including various research areas in 4G and 5G systems. Mobile Terminal Receiver Design
- explains basic working principles, system architecture and specification detailsof legacy and possible next-generation mobile systems, from principle to practiceto product;
- covers in detail RF transmitter and receiver blocks, digital baseband processingblocks, receiver and transmitter signal processing, protocol stack, AGC, AFC, ATC,power supply, clocking;
- features important topics like connectivity and application modules with differentdesign solutions for tradeoff exploration;
- discusses multi-RAT design requirements, key design attributes such as low powerconsumption, slim form factors, seamless I-RAT handover, sensitivity, and selectivity.
It will help software, hardware, and radio frequency design engineers to understand the evolution of radio access technologies and to design competitive and innovative mobile solutions and devices. Graduates, postgraduate students, and researchers in mobile telecommunications disciplines will also find this book a handy reference.
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SAJAL KUMAR DAS, ERICSSON, India
Content
Preface xi
Abbreviations xiii
1 Introduction to Mobile Terminals 1
1.1 Introduction to Mobile Terminals 1
1.1.1 Building Blocks of a Smartphone 2
1.2 History of the Mobile Phone 4
1.3 Growth of the Mobile Phone Market 5
1.4 Past, Present, and Future of Mobile Communication Devices 8
Further Reading 8
2 Cellular Systems Modems 9
2.1 Introduction to Modems 9
2.2 Telecommunication Networks 10
2.3 Cellular Concepts 14
2.4 Evolution of Mobile Cellular Networks 16
2.5 First?]Generation (1G) Cellular Systems 16
2.5.1 First?]Generation Mobile Phone Modem Anatomy 18
2.6 Cellular System Standardization 18
2.7 Second?]Generation (2G) Cellular Systems 19
2.7.1 GSM System 20
2.8 GSM Mobile Phone Modem Anatomy 27
2.8.1 Receiver Unit 27
2.8.2 Transmitter Unit 33
2.9 Channel Estimation and Equalization in GSM Mobile Terminals 33
2.9.1 Channel Condition Detection Techniques 34
2.9.2 Protocol Stack of GSM Mobile 38
2.10 Third?]Generation (3G) Cellular Systems 40
2.10.1 Overview of UMTS System Architecture 40
2.10.2 UMTS Air Interface 41
2.10.3 Physical Channel Transmission 46
2.10.4 UMTS UE Protocol Architecture 52
2.10.5 UMTS Addressing Mechanism 57
2.10.6 Radio Links, Radio Bearers, and Signal Radio Bearers 58
2.11 UMTS UE System Operations 58
2.11.1 Carrier RSSI Scan 58
2.11.2 Cell Search 58
2.11.3 System Information Reception 60
2.11.4 Paging Reception and DRX 61
2.11.5 RRC Connection Establishment 62
2.12 WCDMA UE Transmitter Anatomy 65
2.13 WCDMA UE Receiver Anatomy 67
2.13.1 Baseband Architecture 67
2.14 Evolution of the UMTS System 71
2.14.1 HSDPA 72
2.14.2 HSUPA 76
2.14.3 HSPA+ 81
2.14.4 Receiver Architecture (RAKE and G-RAKE) Evolution for WCDMA 83
References 85
Further Reading 85
3 LTE Systems 87
3.1 LTE Cellular Systems 87
3.2 3GPP Long?]Term Evolution (LTE) Overview 88
3.2.1 LTE Design Goals 88
3.3 3GPP LTE Specifications 89
3.4 LTE Network Architecture 89
3.5 Interfaces 91
3.6 System Protocol Architecture 91
3.6.1 User Plane Data Flow Diagram 93
3.6.2 Protocol States 93
3.6.3 Bearer Service Architecture 95
3.7 LTE?]Uu Downlink and Uplink Transmission Schemes and Air Interface 95
3.7.1 Downlink Transmission Scheme 95
3.7.2 LTE Downlink Frame Structure 100
3.7.3 Uplink Transmission Scheme and Frame Structure 103
3.8 Channel Structure 104
3.8.1 Downlink Channel Structure and Transmission Mechanism 105
3.8.2 Downlink Physical Channel Processing 124
3.8.3 Uplink Channel Structure and Transmission Mechanism 128
3.8.4 Uplink Physical Channel Processing 131
3.9 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) 133
3.9.1 MIMO in the LTE System 135
3.9.2 Transmission Mode (TM) 136
3.10 Uplink Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) 137
3.11 UE Categories 137
3.12 LTE UE Testing 137
References 139
Further Reading 139
4 LTE UE Operations Procedures and Anatomy 140
4.1 UE Procedures 140
4.2 Network and Cell Selection in Terminals 142
4.2.1 PLMN Selection 142
4.2.2 Closed Subscriber Group Selection 144
4.2.3 Cell Selection Criteria 144
4.3 Cell Search and Acquisition 145
4.3.1 Cell Search and Synchronization Procedure 145
4.4 Cell?]Specific Reference (CRS) Signal Detection 148
4.5 PBCH (MIB) Reception 150
4.6 PCFICH Reception 152
4.7 PHICH Reception 152
4.8 PDCCH Reception 152
4.8.1 Implementation of Control Channel Decoder 153
4.9 PDSCH Reception 155
4.10 SIB Reception 155
4.11 Paging Reception 155
4.11.1 Calculation of Paging Frame Number 156
4.11.2 Paging Procedure 156
4.12 UE Measurement Parameters 158
4.13 Random Access Procedure (RACH Transmission) 159
4.13.1 Preamble Transmission by UE 160
4.14 Data Transmission 162
4.15 Handover 164
4.15.1 Idle State Mobility Management 166
4.15.2 Interoperability with Legacy Systems (I?]RAT) 166
4.16 Anatomy of an LTE UE 167
4.17 Channel Estimation 168
4.18 Equalization 170
4.19 Detection 172
4.20 Decoder 173
Reference 173
Further Reading 173
5 Smartphone Hardware and System Design 174
5.1 Introduction to Smartphone Hardware 174
5.2 Smartphone Processors 174
5.2.1 Processor Operations 178
5.2.2 Processor Types 179
5.2.3 Advanced Risk Machine (ARM) 181
5.2.4 DSP?]Based Implementation 189
5.2.5 SOC?]Based Architecture 189
5.2.6 Commonly Used Processors in Smart Phones 190
5.3 LTE Smartphone Hardware Implementation 190
5.4 Memory 191
5.4.1 Read?]Only Memory (ROM) 192
5.4.2 Flash Memory 193
5.4.3 Random?]Access Memory (RAM) 194
5.5 Application Processing Unit 196
5.5.1 Application Processor Peripherals 196
5.6 Multimedia Modules 197
5.7 Microphone 197
5.7.1 Principle of Operation 197
5.8 Loudspeaker 200
5.9 Camera 201
5.10 Display 202
5.11 Keypad and Touchscreen 203
5.12 Analog?]to?]Digital Conversion (ADC) Module 205
5.13 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Module 207
5.14 Frequency Generation Unit 209
5.15 Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) Module 212
5.15.1 The Analog VC?]TCXO 213
5.15.2 Digitally Controlled Crystal Oscillators - DCXO 213
5.16 Alert Signal Generation 215
5.17 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) 216
5.18 Connectivity Modules 217
5.18.1 Bluetooth 217
5.18.2 USB 219
5.18.3 WiFi 222
5.19 RF Baseband (BB) Interface 226
5.20 System Design 226
5.20.1 System Design Goal and Metrics 227
5.20.2 System Architecture 228
Reference 229
Further Reading 229
6 UE RF Components and System Design 230
6.1 Introduction to RF Systems 230
6.2 RF Front?]End Module (FEM) 230
6.2.1 Antenna 230
6.2.2 Baluns 242
6.2.3 Mixers 247
6.3 RF Downconversion 251
6.3.1 Different Types of RF Downconversion Techniques 251
6.3.2 Homodyne Receivers 256
6.3.3 Low IF Receiver 264
6.3.4 Wideband IF Receivers 267
6.4 Receiver Performance Evaluation Parameters 269
6.4.1 Receiver Architecture Comparison 272
6.4.2 Other Feasible Architectures 272
6.4.3 Path to Future Receivers 272
6.5 RF Transmitter 272
6.5.1 Power?]Limited and Bandwidth?]Limited Digital Communication System Design 275
6.5.2 Investigation of the Tradeoffs between Modulation and Amplifier Nonlinearity 278
6.6 Transmitter Architecture Design 279
6.6.1 Nonlinear Transmitters 280
6.6.2 Linear Transmitters 280
6.6.3 Common Architecture for Nonlinear and Linear Transmitters 281
6.6.4 Polar Transmitter 283
6.6.5 Power Amplifier (PA) 285
6.7 Transmitter Performance Measures 288
6.7.1 Design Challenges 289
6.8 LTE Frequency Bands 289
Further Reading 291
7 Software Architecture Design 292
7.1 Introduction 292
7.2 Booting Process 292
7.2.1 Initialization (Boot) Code 294
7.3 Operating System 298
7.3.1 Commonly Used Mobile Operating Systems 299
7.3.2 Real?]Time Operating System 302
7.3.3 OS Operation 302
7.3.4 Selection of an Operating System 303
7.4 Device Driver Software 303
7.5 Speech and Multimedia Application Software 304
7.5.1 Speech Codec 304
7.5.2 Voice Support in LTE 309
7.5.3 Audio Codec 310
7.5.4 Images 311
7.5.5 Video 313
7.6 UE Protocol Stack Software 314
Further Reading 316
8 Battery and Power Management Unit Design 317
8.1 Introduction to the Power Management Unit 317
8.2 Battery Charging Circuit 318
8.2.1 Battery Charging from a USB Port 319
8.2.2 Wireless Charging 320
8.3 Battery 320
8.3.1 Battery Working Principles 320
8.3.2 Power versus Energy 322
8.3.3 Talk Time and Standby Time 322
8.3.4 Types of Rechargeable Batteries and Performance Parameters 322
8.4 Mobile Terminal Energy Consumption 324
8.4.1 System?]Level Analysis of Power Consumption 325
8.5 Low?]Power Smartphone Design 326
8.6 Low?]Power Design Techniques 327
8.6.1 System?]Level Power Optimization 327
8.6.2 Algorithmic Level 329
8.6.3 Technology 330
8.6.4 Circuit/Logic 331
8.6.5 Architecture 332
8.6.6 Power Consumption in Microprocessors 332
8.6.7 Power Consumption in Memory 332
Further Reading 335
9 4G and Beyond 337
9.1 Introduction to LTE?]Advanced 337
9.2 LTE?]Advanced Features 337
9.2.1 Carrier Aggregation 337
9.2.2 Enhanced Uplink Multiple Access 341
9.2.3 Enhanced Multiple Antenna Transmission 342
9.2.4 Relaying 342
9.2.5 Device to Device 342
9.2.6 Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) 344
9.2.7 Heterogeneous Networks and Enhanced ICIC 344
9.2.8 LTE Self?]Optimizing Networks (SON) 346
9.3 LTE?]A UE Modem Processing 346
9.4 LTE?]A UE Implementation 347
9.5 Future Generations (5G) 348
9.6 Internet of Things (IoT) 350
Further Reading 351
Index 352
1
Introduction to Mobile Terminals
1.1 Introduction to Mobile Terminals
A mobile communication device is a small, portable electronic device, with wireless communication capabilities, which is easy to carry around. There are several types of mobile communication devices, like cell phones or mobile phones, WLAN devices, and GPS navigation devices, but it is the mobile phone that has adopted the term "mobile device," and gradually its purpose has shifted from a verbal communication tool to a multimedia tool.
A mobile phone, which is also known as mobile terminal (MT), cellular phone, cell phone, hand phone, or simply a phone, is a device that can send and receive telephone calls over a radio link while being connected to a cellular base station operated by a cellular network operator. It provides user mobility around a wide geographic area. A feature phone is a low-end mobile phone with limited capabilities and it provides mainly voice calling, text messaging, multimedia, and Internet functionality. In addition to telephone calls, modern multifunctional mobile phones with more computing capabilities, which support a wide variety of other applications and services like SMS, MMS, e-mails, Internet, Web browsing, news, gaming, playing music, movies, calendar management, contact, video, photography, short-range connectivity, location-specific information, WLAN connectivity, and GPS connectivity, are considered as smartphones. Smartphones offer all these services in single device, so they are becoming increasingly important as work tools for users who rely on these services. Today, they have become universal replacements for personal digital assistant (PDA) devices. Typically, a smartphone incorporates handheld computer functionalities along with the communication capabilities of a cell phone by providing support of multimodal, multi-RAT connectivity and user customized applications. Personal digital assistants / enterprise digital assistants, tablet computers, ultramobile PCs, and a lot of wearable devices also provide mobile communication capabilities by integrating communication modems in them. Various types of these devices are shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 (a) PDA, (b) smartphone (c) tablet (d) wearable device
1.1.1 Building Blocks of a Smartphone
A system-level block diagram of a smartphone is shown in Figure 1.2. Smartphones are equipped with various functional blocks as given below:
- Mobile terminal modem unit. This unit (cellular systems modem) interfaces with the cellular base stations, and sends / receives user information (voice, data) generated by the application unit. So it interacts with a base station using different cellular air interface standards like GSM, WCDMA, LTE etc. to send / receive information to distantly located called party or server. It also interacts locally with its application units, like speech, video, and data transfer applications for getting / providing the user application data. This is discussed in Chapters 2, 3 and 4. This consists of two main submodules: Radio Frequency (RF) unit and Baseband (BB) unit.
- RF unit. The RF analog front-end unit's transmitter circuit helps to upconvert the low-frequency baseband signal to a high-frequency amplified RF signal for transmission, and the receiver circuit helps to downconvert the analog amplified received high-frequency signal to a low-frequency baseband signal. The RF unit is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
- Baseband unit. The baseband unit helps for digital bit detection, system protocol processing for proper and reliable communication with the network. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 4 and 5.
- SIM. A subscriber identification module (SIM) is an integrated circuit that securely stores the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) and the related key used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices. A SIM circuit is embedded into a removable plastic card, called "SIM card." This is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Application unit. This unit is in charge of running various applications. It interacts with the modem and connectivity modules to send / receive information from remote devices, and uses that data to drive various applications. It provides the functions that users want to execute on the smart phone and these may include speech, audio playback, fax transmission / reception, Internet, e-mail, Web browsing, image reproduction, streaming video, games, and so forth. This unit also handles the interface functions such as keyboard, display, and speech recognition, and it interfaces and manages other connectivity modules such as GPS and WLAN. Depending on the smartphone device complexity, there could one or several application processors in a mobile phone. The architecture design and selection details are provided in Chapter 5 and 7. The application processor consists of components like the processor core and device interfaces, which communicate with other peripheral devices attached to the application processor like the LCD screen, camera, keypad, universal serial bus (USB), and multimedia card (MMC) via interfaces. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Peripheral devices. There are several peripheral devices placed in the smart phone for different purposes. Like, for data transfer with other devices or PC, an USB device is placed in the phone. Similarly, UART, I2S etc. are used for intermodule or interdevice communication. The other devices are like, SD / MMC, LCD display, keyboard, microphone, and speaker are also used in a mobile phone. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Multimedia modules. It performs multimedia related functions like, speech encoding /decoding, audio encoding / decoding, video encoding / decoding by employing various multimedia standards (MP3, JPEG, MPEG, and so forth). As multimedia-related functions are time consuming, so these are generally implemented in dedicated hardware block. Also, smartphone contain graphics processing unit (GPU) for rapid processing of multimedia functions. These are discussed in detail in Chapters 5 and 7.
- Various sensors and actuators. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal (electrical or optical) by an instrument. They sense the changes in the environment and send them to the application processor. The commonly used sensors in handsets include accelerometers, gyroscopes, proximity sensors, ambient light sensors, barometers, and so forth. On the other hand, an actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or a system. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Vibrator. A vibra alert device is used to give a silent alert signal to the phone user. Generally the vibration is made using an improperly balanced motor and controlled with a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal via the battery terminal. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Connectivity modules. Apart from cellular system modem, the smart phone also houses several other wireless connectivity modules like, Geo Positioning System (GPS), Bluetooth (BT), FM radio, ZigBee, Wireless LAN (WLAN), and so forth. These individual submodules have RF and digital baseband processing unit and interact with the other devices, peripherals like, headset or server through radio interface. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Power management module. This unit is responsible for distributing the regulated battery power among various modules, conversion of the battery voltage (generally 3.6 V) according to the different voltage level needed by different modules, which means up or down conversion to various voltages (such as 4.8 V, 2.8 V, 1.8 V and 1.6 V) using, for example, a DC-DC converter, a battery power consumption control device, sleep-related functionalities management, battery-charging control. The battery-charging component is responsible for charging the battery of the smartphone. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
- Clock distribution module. This distributes a clock signal to the mobile phone. The clock signal is required in every digital blocks in the system and also it is required in RF unit for scheduling transmission and reception at a specific time. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
- Memory. Various types of memory are used in the mobile phone for storing code and data. Generally, Flash memory, EPROM, and DRAM memory are used in a mobile phone. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Figure 1.2 System-level block diagram of a typical smartphone
Apart from all these hardware blocks, firmware and software components reside in the memory and are executed by processors to configure, control, and process different hardware modules, applications, and protocols. These are discussed in Chapter 7.
1.2 History of the Mobile Phone
Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars, trains and other vehicles, mainly due to the larger size and weight of the equipment. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a senior engineer at Motorola, made the first mobile telephone call from...
