Communities for Clean Energy Justice and Equity in Grid Modernization
Description
Comprehensive blueprint to understand, develop, and implement clean energy initiatives and achieve energy justice and equity worldwide
Communities for Clean Energy Justice and Equity in Grid Modernization presents fundamental theories, technologies, and solutions for real-world problems in the operation and planning of clean, safe, resilient, and efficient energy communities that deliver energy justice and equity.
The initial chapters of the book focus on conceptual requirements, emphasizing the definition, structure, features, and challenges of promoting energy justice and equity through the coordinated operation of clean energy communities. Subsequent chapters explore potential technologies and systems to achieve these objectives, examining functionalities in modern energy grids, including self-healing systems, sustainable energy networks, and intelligent, multidimensional communities of agents.
Edited by a team of highly qualified experts, the book explores additional topics including:
- Decision-making tools for optimized operation and planning of multi-energy communities
- Holistic energy availability frameworks capable of dealing with changes and interactions in modern energy grids
- The role of artificial intelligence, machine learning, citizenship, and democracy in realizing energy justice and equity
- Hybrid transitional energy markets, energy policy strategies, and business models related to localization of energy technologies
- Energy storage and trading solutions, hybrid energy technologies, and grid-edge solutions
Communities for Clean Energy Justice and Equity in Grid Modernization is an essential reference on the subject for electrical, mechanical, civil, architectural, and environmental engineers, along with professionals working in power and energy utility companies and policy makers seeking a holistic understanding of the subject.
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Mohammadreza Daneshvar, PhD, is an Assistant Professor and Head of the Laboratory of Multi-Carrier Energy Networks Modernization in the Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Tabriz, Iran.
Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo, PhD, is a Professor in the School of Energy Systems, LUT University, Lappeenranta, Finland.
Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Energy (AAU Energy) at Aalborg University, Denmark.
Content
About the Editors xix
List of Contributors xxiii
Preface xxix
1 Energy Justice and Equity for the Sustainable Development of Modern Energy Grids 1
Mohammadreza Daneshvar and Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Energy Justice and Equity for Sustainable Development 2
1.2.1 Economic Rights 3
1.2.2 Environmental Rights 4
1.2.3 Social Rights 5
1.3 Energy-Poverty Nexus in Energy Justice and Equity 5
1.4 Summary 8
References 8
2 Importance of Energy Justice and Equity in Grid Modernization 11
Reza Gharibi, Behrooz Vahidi, and Rahman Dashti
2.1 Introduction 11
2.1.1 Motivation 11
2.1.2 Background 12
2.1.3 Contributions 14
2.1.4 Chapter Organization 15
2.2 Grid Modernization 15
2.2.1 Smart Grid 16
2.2.2 Renewable Energy Integration 18
2.2.3 Energy Storage System 20
2.2.4 Data Analytics 21
2.3 Energy Justice 22
2.3.1 Distributive Justice 23
2.3.2 Recognition Justice 25
2.3.3 Procedural Justice 26
2.4 Just Transition: From Environmental to Energy Justice 28
2.4.1 Just Transition and Environmental Movements 29
2.4.2 History of the Energy Justice Movement 31
2.5 Challenges of Transition to Energy Justice 33
2.6 Modernizing Energy: A Catalyst for Energy Justice 36
2.6.1 Democratizing Access to Energy Resources 37
2.6.2 Addressing Energy Poverty 37
2.6.3 Improvement of Environmental Justice 37
2.6.4 Engagement and Increased Community Empowerment 38
2.7 Impact of Energy Justice on Grid Modernization Aspects 39
2.7.1 Hardware Upgrades 39
2.7.2 Security Enhancements 40
2.7.3 Redundancy and High Availability 40
2.7.4 Performance Optimization 40
2.7.5 Monitoring and Management 41
2.8 Energy Justice and the Adoption of Innovative Technologies 41
2.9 Conclusion 43
Abbreviations 44
References 44
3 Decision-Making Tools for Advancing Clean Energy Justice and Equity with Supply Chain and Project Management 51
Monica Bhatia and Pradyumn Chaturvedi
Acronyms 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.1.1 Motivation 52
3.1.2 Background 54
3.1.3 Research Gap 55
3.1.4 Contributions 56
3.1.5 Objectives 57
3.2 Renewable Energy Equity and Justice 57
3.3 Types of Decision Tools 59
3.4 Data Collection and Assessment of Different Countries 64
3.5 Energy Equity and Justice of Each Renewable Energy Source in India 68
3.6 Role of Supply Chain Management in the Renewable Energy Equity and Justice 77
3.7 Role of Project Management in the Renewable Energy Equity and Justice 80
3.8 Impact of Management Program on the Clean Energy Equity and Justice 82
3.9 SWOT Analysis 84
3.10 Renewable Energy Equity and Justice Matrix 86
3.11 Conclusion 87
Acknowledgment 88
References 88
4 Multi-energy Community Structure for Energy Justice and Equity 91
Peyman Afzali, Sahar Mobasheri, Banafsheh Alipour, Sogand Hosseinalipour, Masoud Rashidinejad, and Sobhan Dorahaki
Nomenclature 91
4.1 Introduction 93
4.1.1 Motivation and Background 94
4.1.2 Challenges and Opportunities 98
4.1.2.1 Challenges 98
4.1.2.2 Opportunities 98
4.1.3 Contributions 99
4.2 Energy Communities 100
4.2.1 Definition 101
4.2.2 Implementation 102
4.2.3 Socio-Techno-Economic-Environmental Aspects 103
4.2.4 Behavior and Preference of End Users 104
4.3 Multi-energy Communities 105
4.3.1 Components of a Multi-career System 108
4.3.2 Structure of the Multi-energy Community 108
4.4 Energy Justice and Equity in Multi-energy Communities 109
4.4.1 Definition of Energy Justice and Equity 111
4.4.2 Energy Poverty 113
4.4.3 Energy Democracy 115
4.5 Clean Energy Initiatives in Multi-energy Communities 116
4.5.1 Resources of Clean Energy 116
4.5.2 The Integration of Renewable Energies in Energy Communities 117
4.5.3 Carbon-Free Multi-energy Communities 118
4.6 Problem Formulation 120
4.7 Numerical Results 126
4.8 Conclusion 133
References 134
5 Equity-Oriented Energy Allocation in Mixed and Underprivileged Communities 141
Akhtar Hussain and Petr Musilek
Nomenclature 141
5.1 Introduction 142
5.2 Equitable Energy Sharing 145
5.2.1 Shared Community Energy Resources 145
5.3 Community Resource Allocation 147
5.3.1 Resource Allocation Methods 148
5.3.2 Equity in Resource Allocation 149
5.3.3 Mixed Communities 150
5.4 Power Sharing: Mixed Communities 153
5.4.1 Benefits of Power Sharing 153
5.4.2 Equity Analysis 154
5.5 Advantages and Limitations 156
5.5.1 Major Factors for Fairness Analysis 156
5.5.2 Features of Different Cases 156
5.6 Conclusions 157
References 157
6 Energy Justice and Equity in Developing a Fair Multi-energy Community and Environment 161
Aamer Raza, Sheraz Azam Mirza, Saqib Ali, and Muzaffar Ali
Acronyms 161
6.1 Introduction 161
6.2 Axis of Energy Justice and Equity in a Multi-energy Environment 164
6.2.1 Distributional Justice 164
6.2.2 Procedural Justice 172
6.2.3 Recognition Justice 174
6.3 Principles of Energy Justice 176
6.4 Factors of Fairness and Equity in Developing a Multi-Energy Community 177
6.4.1 Climate Change 177
6.4.2 Structural Racism 178
6.4.3 Energy Prices 178
6.4.4 Planning and Policy Failure 178
6.4.5 Political Acumen 178
6.5 Use of Artificial Intelligence in Energy Justice 178
6.6 Conclusion and Future Research 180
References 181
7 Energy Community Operation and Planning for Energy Justice and Equity 187
Homayoun Ghasemnejad, Sogand Hosseinalipour, Masoud Rashidinejad, and Sobhan Dorahaki
Nomenclature 187
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Energy Communities: Definition, Challenges, and Opportunities 190
7.2.1 Localized 191
7.2.2 Scale 191
7.2.3 Purpose 192
7.2.4 Participants 192
7.2.5 Social 192
7.2.6 Technology 193
7.2.7 Comprehensive Definition 193
7.3 Promoting Sustainability Through Energy Communities 194
7.3.1 Economic Aspect 195
7.3.2 Environmental Aspect 195
7.3.3 Social Aspect 196
7.4 Development of Energy Sustainability with the Energy Community 196
7.5 Challenges of Energy Sustainability Within Energy Communities 196
7.5.1 Regulatory Challenges 197
7.5.2 Technical Challenges 197
7.5.3 Financial Challenges 197
7.5.4 Social Challenges 197
7.6 Energy Justice: Definition and Implementation 197
7.7 The Role of Energy Communities in Advancing Energy Justice 199
7.8 Examination of Energy Justice Within Energy Community 200
7.8.1 Energy Justice Within Energy Community 200
7.8.2 Energy Justice Between Energy Communities and External Institutions 200
7.8.3 Energy Justice Beyond Energy Community 200
7.9 Challenges to Green and Equitable Energy Society 201
7.10 Proposed Framework for CEC Planning and Operation 202
7.11 Numerical Study 207
7.12 Conclusion 211
References 211
8 Energy Storage Systems for Energy Justice and Equity 217
Emre Çakir, Furkan Hanilçi, and Yigit Çagatay Kuyu
8.1 Introduction 217
8.2 Background 219
8.3 Energy Storage System 229
8.3.1 Electromagnetic Energy Storage 230
8.3.2 Types of Electromagnetic Energy Storage 237
8.3.2.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 237
8.3.2.2 Capacitive Energy Storage (CES) 238
8.3.2.3 Inductive Energy Storage (IES) 238
8.3.3 A Comprehensive Comparative Analysis of Electromagnetic Energy Storage Systems 239
8.3.3.1 Applications and Case Studies of Electromagnetic Energy Storage Systems 243
8.3.4 Chemical Energy Storage Systems 248
8.3.4.1 Sodium Sulfur 248
8.3.4.2 Lead Acid 249
8.3.4.3 Flow Batteries 250
8.3.4.4 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) 253
8.3.4.5 Fuel Cell 259
8.3.5 Mechanical Energy Storage Systems (MESSs) 262
8.3.5.1 Types of Mechanical Energy Storage Systems 265
8.3.5.2 A Comprehensive Comparative Analysis of Mechanical Energy Storage Systems 278
8.3.5.3 Applications and Case Studies of Mechanical Energy Storage Systems (MESSs) 280
8.3.6 Limitations 282
8.4 Utilization of Data Science Methods 284
8.4.1 Big Data Platforms 285
8.4.1.1 Cloud-Based Big Data Platforms 285
8.4.1.2 Scaling 286
8.4.2 Most Used Big Data Analytics Algorithms 288
8.4.2.1 K-Means Clustering 289
8.4.2.2 Hierarchical Clustering 289
8.4.2.3 Support Vector Machine 290
8.4.2.4 Decision Trees 291
8.4.2.5 K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) Algorithm 291
8.5 Energy Storage and Data Analysis Applications in Energy Justice and Equality 292
8.6 Conclusion 296
References 297
9 Energy Trading Mechanisms for Energy Justice and Equity 307
Iman Rahmati and Asghar Akbari Foroud
Acronyms 307
9.1 Introduction 307
9.2 Energy Market and Justice 308
9.2.1 Energy as a Tradable Commodity 308
9.2.2 Energy Justice Versus Affordability and Access to Energy 309
9.2.3 How Tradability Contributes to Energy Justice? 312
9.2.4 How Tradability Threatens Energy Justice? 314
9.3 Markets for Energy Carriers 314
9.3.1 Brief History and the Current Situation of Energy Markets 314
9.3.2 Challenges of Energy Markets to Promote Energy Justice 319
9.3.3 Affordability, Subsidy, and Market 320
9.3.4 The Interplay Between Efficiency and Justice 323
9.3.5 Market Mechanisms to Promote Energy Justice 324
9.3.6 Energy Access During Crisis 326
9.4 Trading Mechanisms to Support Energy Justice 327
9.4.1 Energy Justice and Sustainability 327
9.4.2 The Case for and Against the Coexistence of Market and Sustainability 328
9.4.3 Short Review on Sustainability-driven Trading Mechanisms 329
9.4.4 How Trading Mechanisms Affect Energy Justice and Equity? 333
9.4.5 The Need for Amendments 335
9.5 Summary 336
References 337
10 Peer-to-Peer Energy Communities: An Equitable Approach to Expanding Social Welfare and Energy Justice 343
Mohammad Hasan Ghodusinejad, Setareh Peirov, and Hossein Yousefi
Nomenclature 343
10.1 Energy Transition and Democratization 344
10.2 Peer-to-Peer Energy Communities 348
10.2.1 Advent of Energy Communities 348
10.2.2 Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading 349
10.2.3 Regulatory of P2P Markets 351
10.3 Energy Justice and P2P Energy Communities 352
10.4 A Confirmatory Analytical Study 356
10.4.1 Study Framework 356
10.4.1.1 First Scenario: Supply From the Grid 359
10.4.1.2 Second Scenario: Energy Community 359
10.4.1.3 Third Scenario: P2P Energy Sharing Community 360
10.4.2 Results and Discussion 361
10.5 Conclusion 365
References 366
11 Sustainable Development of Energy Communities for Energy Justice and Equity 371
Arash Rajaei, Sobhan Dorahaki, Masoud Rashidinejad, Peyman Afzali, and Mahdi Bedrood
11.1 Introduction 371
11.2 Foundations of Energy Justice and Equity 373
11.2.1 The Conceptual Framework of Energy Justice 373
11.2.2 Social Implications of Energy Practices 375
11.2.3 Economic Dimensions of Energy Equity 376
11.2.4 Environmental Sustainability as a Pillar of Energy Justice 377
11.3 Energy Communities: Conceptual Framework 378
11.3.1 Defining Energy Communities 378
11.3.2 Principles of Community Engagement in Energy Development 379
11.3.3 Local Governance and Decision-Making Structures 380
11.3.4 Collaborative Energy Planning and Implementation 381
11.4 Policy Interventions for Energy Justice 383
11.4.1 Frameworks for Inclusive Policy Development 383
11.4.2 Financial Mechanisms for Equitable Access 384
11.4.3 Regulatory Frameworks for Community-Owned Energy Projects 385
11.4.4 Energy Affordability and Inclusivity Policies 386
11.4.5 Community Engagement in Policy Decision-Making 387
11.4.6 Addressing Environmental Justice Through Policies 388
11.5 Technological Innovations for Inclusive Energy 390
11.5.1 Accessible Clean Energy Technologies 390
11.5.2 Smart Grids and Energy Management Systems 391
11.5.3 Decentralized Energy Storage Solutions 392
11.5.4 Inclusive Technological Design and User-Centered Innovation 393
11.5.5 Mobile Technologies for Energy Access 394
11.6 Challenges and Opportunities of Sustainable and Equitable Energy Development 396
11.6.1 Economic Barriers and Financial Accessibility 396
11.6.2 Technological Accessibility and Inclusive Design 397
11.6.3 Policy and Regulatory Hurdles 399
11.6.4 Social and Cultural Considerations 400
11.6.5 Environmental Justice and Sustainability 401
11.7 Dimensions of Sustainability in Energy Justice and Equity 403
11.8 Conclusion 404
Acronyms 405
References 405
12 Electrification of Urban and Rural Areas Under Energy Justice and Equity Paradigms 409
Marziyeh Razeghi, Hossein Yousefi, Amir Naseri, and Younes Noorollahi
12.1 Introduction 409
12.2 Energy Justice 410
12.2.1 Justice 410
12.2.2 Energy 412
12.3 Energy Justice as a Decision-Making Tool 414
12.4 Energization 418
12.5 Geographical and Contextual Differences 427
12.6 Comparative Analysis of Energy Justice and Equity in Rural and Urban Areas 430
12.6.1 Rural Energy Justice 430
12.6.2 Urban Energy Justice 432
12.6.3 Factors Creating Inequality of Energy Justice in Urban and Rural Areas 432
12.6.4 Comparative Viewpoints 432
12.7 Conclusion 433
Abbreviations 433
References 434
13 Social Justice in Electrical Energy Outage Management Through the Controllability Index 441
Hamidreza Arasteh, Salah Bahramara, Mahyar Gholizadeh, Niki Moslemi, Zohreh Kaheh, Milad Biazar, and Miadreza Shafie-khah
13.1 Introduction 441
13.1.1 Aims and Motivations 441
13.1.2 Research Background 442
13.1.3 Research Gap and Innovations 445
13.1.4 Chapter Organization 446
13.2 Problem Description 446
13.2.1 Main Concept 446
13.2.2 Controllability Index 447
13.2.3 Information Collection from Distribution Companies 448
13.2.4 Problem Formulation 448
13.2.5 Budget Allocation for the Installation of Automation Switches 451
13.3 Numerical Analyses 451
13.4 Conclusion 454
Abbreviations 455
References 455
14 The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Advancing Energy Justice and Equity 459
Nastaran Gholizadeh, Noon Hussein, and Petr Musilek
Acronyms 459
14.1 Introduction 459
14.2 AI and the Energy Transition: Opportunities and Challenges 461
14.3 Evaluating the Impact of AI Through the Lens of Energy Justice 464
14.3.1 Defining the Role of AI in Advancing Energy Justice 464
14.3.2 AI Design and Distributive Justice: Balancing Benefits and Burdens 465
14.3.3 AI Design and Procedural Justice: Ensuring Transparency and Participation 469
14.3.4 AI Design and Recognition Justice: Acknowledging Diverse Stakeholder Needs 469
14.4 Transparency, Fairness, and Bias Mitigation in AI for Energy Systems 471
14.4.1 Ensuring Interpretability in Transparent Decision-Making for Energy Justice 471
14.4.2 Detecting and Addressing Bias in AI Models for Equity 472
14.4.3 Ensuring Fair Distribution of Benefits and Costs 473
14.4.4 Balancing Safety, Privacy, and Transparency in AI Applications 474
14.5 Case Study: Justice-Oriented Emergency Load Shedding with RL 475
14.5.1 Problem Formulation 476
14.5.2 Experimental Setup and Data 479
14.5.3 Results and Discussion 480
14.6 Future Directions: Bridging Energy Law and AI Regulations for Policy Development and Justice-Oriented Approaches 482
14.7 Conclusion 484
References 485
15 Artificial-Intelligence-Based Marketing Analysis for Realizing Renewable Energy Justice and Equity 493
Vikas Khare and Monica Bhatia
Acronyms 493
15.1 Introduction 493
15.2 How Can We Achieve Equitable Energy System? 498
15.3 Role of Artificial Intelligence in Renewable Energy Justice and Equity 500
15.4 Knowledge Representation of the Renewable Energy Equity and Justice 502
15.4.1 Ontology Development 502
15.4.2 Semantic Graph Representation 512
15.5 Data Collection and Assessment 514
15.5.1 Multi-regression Analysis 516
15.6 AI-based Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) Analysis of the Renewable Energy Equity and Justice 521
15.6.1 Strengths 521
15.6.2 Weaknesses 523
15.6.3 Opportunities 523
15.6.4 Threats 523
15.7 Social Acceptance for AI Usage in Energy Systems for Energy Justice and Equity 524
15.8 Conclusion 525
References 526
16 Artificial-Intelligence-Based Equitable Energy Investment Prioritization Analytics 529
Ashkan Safari
Nomenclature 529
16.1 Introduction 529
16.2 Case Analysis: Importance of Energy Investment Prioritization Equity in USA 532
16.2.1 Energy Distribution 533
16.2.2 Energy Transmission 534
16.2.3 Electricity Market 534
16.3 Utilized Dataset: NREL Energy Investment Prioritization 536
16.3.1 Population and Energy Generation Potential 536
16.3.2 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 536
16.3.3 Electric Vehicle Growth and Projections 537
16.3.4 Cost Savings 537
16.3.5 Environmental Justice Indicators 537
16.3.6 Socioeconomic Factors 537
16.4 Machine Learning and Predictive Analysis in EEIP 537
16.4.1 Lasso Regressor 548
16.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges Ahead 556
16.6 Conclusion 557
References 557
17 Intelligent Remedial Action Scheme Against False Data Injection Cyberattacks Targeting Energy Justice and Equity in Modern Power Systems 561
Ehsan Naderi and Arash Asrari
Abbreviations 561
17.1 Introduction 562
17.1.1 Background and Motivation 562
17.1.2 Background 563
17.1.2.1 Related Works on Energy Justice and Equity 563
17.1.2.2 Related Works on Cyberattacks Targeting Energy Equity 563
17.1.3 Research Gap and Contributions of This Chapter 564
17.2 Proposed Framework 565
17.3 Problem Formulation 567
17.3.1 Formulation of Cyberattack Model 567
17.3.2 Formulation of the Remedial Action Scheme 570
17.3.3 Formulation of the Unified and Intelligent Remedial Action Scheme via Federated Learning Concept 571
17.4 Case Study, Simulation Results, and Analysis 575
17.4.1 Initialization 575
17.4.2 Case Study 575
17.4.3 Investigated Scenarios of Cyberattacks 576
17.4.4 Numerical Results and Analysis 579
17.4.4.1 Negative Impacts of the Launched Cyberattack on Energy Justice and Equity 579
17.4.4.2 Performance of the Remedial Actions Against Such FDIAs 581
17.4.5 Discussion 583
17.5 Acknowledgment 584
17.6 Conclusions 584
References 585
18 Energy Policy Strategies for Energy Justice and Equity 589
Iman Rahmati and Asghar Akbari Foroud
Acronyms 589
18.1 Introduction 589
18.2 Why Energy Justice Relies on Policy? 590
18.2.1 Energy as a Critical Factor in Social Welfare and Development 590
18.2.2 Role of Policy in Energy Consumption Habit 590
18.3 Nexus Between Policy and Energy Justice 591
18.3.1 Policymakers Promise to Bring Justice 591
18.3.2 Political Challenges of Energy Justice 593
18.3.3 Energy Justice at the International Level 595
18.4 Policies Toward Sustainability 595
18.4.1 Sustainability as the Most Political Aspect of Energy Justice 595
18.4.2 Sustainability as Justice Toward Next Generations 597
18.4.3 Sustainability in National and International Policy and Challenges 598
18.5 Survey on Policy-related Attempts 600
18.5.1 Energy Justice in Policy 600
18.5.2 Energy Justice in Low-income Societies 602
18.5.3 Energy Justice in Developed Countries 604
18.5.4 International Attempts Regarding Energy Justice 606
18.6 Summary 608
References 609
19 Challenges of Energy Justice and Equity in Different Regions 613
Iman Rahmati and Asghar Akbari Foroud
Acronyms 613
19.1 Introduction 613
19.2 Energy Justice and Equity in Europe 614
19.2.1 Key Features of Europe 614
19.2.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in Europe 615
19.3 Energy Justice and Equity in Africa 616
19.3.1 Key Features of Africa 616
19.3.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in Africa 617
19.4 Energy Justice and Equity in East Asia 618
19.4.1 Key Features of East Asia 618
19.4.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in East Asia 620
19.5 Energy Justice and Equity in Central Asia 620
19.5.1 Key Features of Central Asia 620
19.5.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in Central Asia 621
19.6 Energy Justice and Equity in the Middle East 622
19.6.1 Key Features of the Middle East 622
19.6.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in the Middle East 622
19.7 Energy Justice and Equity in South America 624
19.7.1 Key Features of South America 624
19.7.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in South America 625
19.8 Energy Justice and Equity in North America 626
19.8.1 Key Features of North America 626
19.8.2 Challenges of Energy Justice in North America 628
19.9 Summary 629
References 630
Index 635
1
Energy Justice and Equity for the Sustainable Development of Modern Energy Grids
Mohammadreza Daneshvar1*, and Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam2
1Laboratory of Multi-Carrier Energy Networks Modernization, Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
2Department of Energy (AAU Energy), Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, global development has found energy to be a vital requirement for realizing scheduled plans in different areas. This trend highlights a necessary alarm of the critical need for purposeful upgrading of energy networks due to the day-by-day growth of energy demand in its various carriers [1]. How this change needs to be conducted that not only caters to the multi-energy load but also delivers carbon-free and affordable energy to the consumer side is a key question in the expansion pass of modern energy grids. To address it, diverse endeavors are formed around the world to assess practical plans for the successful switching from the current centralized traditional systems to the modern zero-emission and cost-effective energy units [2]. In this respect, the universal trend toward clean energy is solidified by unveiling the importance of reliable access to environmentally friendly energy. The prominence of this issue was mostly identified when 193 members of the United Nations signed the agreement for sustainable development in 2015 [3]. In the seventh goal of sustainable development, the main motivation is "to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all" by 2030 [3]. However, the realization of this commitment is back to the availability of the financial budgets and accessibility to the required technologies [4]. The absence of the mentioned two key factors has deprived some countries of this development. Hence, how sustainable development in the energy world can be feasible for all countries, particularly for those that just have limited access to the required budgets and technologies, is an uncertain issue in the process of implementation of the United Nations pledge. Herein, another issue is properly distinguishing sustainable development efforts and endeavors for reinforcing energy privilege [5]. What can be done here is to explore the different dimensions of energy justice and equity in various layers of sustainable development. In this respect, recent literature has various perspectives on the effects of energy justice and equity in the transition to renewable energy. For instance, energy justice and equity are crucial for human development in [6] given its necessity for establishing social justice by procuring efficient and clean energy services for consumers. In another work [7], the impact of community acceptance of the planning of offshore grid connections on energy justice is examined. It is analyzed to find a practical way to rapidly implement renewable energy systems for clean energy supply. How artificial intelligence can improve grid flexibility and energy efficiency and how this improvement can positively affect energy justice and equity were the main questions in [8] that are conducted by exerting different methods to remove the related barriers for automated smart homes. Herein, the key question can be dedicated to the accessibility of various types of energy, which is why some consumers don't have access to reliable and affordable energy. Yet, the technology of multifarious decentralized systems has been mature enough to be deployed in different conditions for supplying energy. This can be known as the prominent dimension of energy justice and equity because it has a direct connection with the convenience of end users. Therefore, the development of modern energy networks is expected to be conducted in line with the realization of energy justice and equity plans in their different dimensions. The current chapter aims to scrutinize the interconnections between the sustainable development of modern multi-carrier energy networks and the feasibility of energy justice and equity schemes with the aim of providing an appropriate view for the purposeful development of future multi-energy networks.
1.2 Energy Justice and Equity for Sustainable Development
Recently, most contemporary debates in the energy world have revolved around specific topics in the domain of energy poverty alleviation, climate change decline, security, and reliability in energy access [9]. The practical plans for energy justice and equity can improve the accessibility to different dimensions of energy for all end users, reducing energy poverty and declining climate change by promoting the high usage of carbon-free energy systems. As the related plans need to be designed to provide better access to energy, it is expected that energy justice and equity enhance the security and reliability of energy delivery in energy grids. Energy has become the undeniable principle of realizing different goals of sustainable development leading to opening new questions in the context of linking sustainable development criteria and energy justice and equity. Herein, the seventh goal of sustainable development is formed to clarify and raise public awareness that access to affordable and clean energy is an important universal right [9]. In this respect, embedded rights refer to those actions that protect communities and individuals from energy-oriented harms and burdens in equitable access to energy [10]. Social, environmental, and economic rights are taken into account as the three most important domains of such actions, and their features are illustrated in Figure 1.1 [10].
1.2.1 Economic Rights
According to Figure 1.1, from the dimension of economic rights, the protection from energy-oriented threats is targeted at communities and individuals to provide economic livelihood and well-being for them. Two criteria can be considered for the assessment of economic rights. The first one refers to the development of energy projects that are not created to intend debt, economic exploitation, and predatory lending schemes as the main objective. This issue is more important for energy justice and equity as there are many energy systems that are basically developed in a way that relies on different payments from consumers [11]. This can be addressed by concentrating on the usage of various technologies of renewable energy systems as decentralized systems in geographical areas to meet the related end users [12]. Such actions will not only be cost-effective but also will have no harmful effects on the environment. Indeed, decentralized energy systems offer a variety of energy production options that enable the system to act cost-effectively in managing energy harvesting and serving that increase the system's flexibility in the control and management of energy sources. The distributed nature of decentralized energy systems in generating and supplying energy distinguishes them from centralized systems in terms of clean, affordable, reliable, and flexible energy serving.
Figure 1.1 Three main domains of energy justice and equity as embedded rights.
Source: Ciplet [10]/with permission of Elsevier.
The second important thing in the economic right is the protection of communities and individuals from the displacement of livelihoods through finance and energy projects. The displacement of livelihoods can negatively affect the achievement of some opportunities for special groups, such as women in finding appropriate work in different sectors [13]. Hence, proper distribution of energy systems and purposeful exploitation of diverse energy sources can help protect livelihoods from displacement through finance and energy projects.
1.2.2 Environmental Rights
As Figure 1.1 indicates, from the dimension of environmental rights, the protection from energy-oriented environmental burdens is targeted at communities and individuals to provide environmentally friendly conditions for them. Similar to economic rights, two criteria can also be intended for scrutinizing environmental rights. The avoidance of exposure to energy-oriented hazards, emissions, and risks is the first one that especially implies the rights of marginalized social groups as they disproportionately experience such hazards [10]. Indeed, energy development can result in ecological burdens in the form of emissions and different negative health impacts, particularly for marginalized communities that may be affected by various factors, such as indigeneity, age, class, gender, and race [14, 15].
The second issue is the involuntary resettlement of people and communities from local ecologies and land that should not occur due to development plans for energy systems. This concern also encompasses privatization or enclosure of common or public resources that may negatively affect the well-being and rights of individuals. Relying on decentralized clean energy systems in the sustainable development of modern energy networks can significantly alleviate the need for involuntary resettlement and displacement in the implementation process of energy systems resulting in not violating the environmental rights of communities and realizing energy justice and equity.
1.2.3 Social Rights
From the dimension of social...
