Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations: Evidence-Based Strategies and Practice
Description
LEARN THE UNIFYING PRINCIPLES BEHIND RISK, CRISIS, AND HIGH STRESS COMMUNICATION WITH THIS STATE-OF-THE-ART REFERENCE WRITTEN BY A MAJOR LEADER IN THE FIELD
Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations: Evidence-Based Strategies and Practice is about communicating with people in the most challenging circumstances: high stress situations characterized by high risks and high stakes. The ability to communicate effectively in a high stress situation is an essential communication competency for managers, engineers, scientists, and professionals in every field who can be thrust into demanding situations complicated by stress. Whether you are confronting an external crisis, an internal emergency, or leading organizational change, this book was written for you.
Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations brings together in one resource proven scientific research with practical, hands-on guidance from a world leader in the field. The book covers such critical topics as trust, stakeholder engagement, misinformation, messaging, and audience perceptions in the context of stress. This book is uniquely readable, thorough, and useful, thanks to features that include:
* Evidence-based theories and concepts that underlie and guide practice
* Tools and guidelines for practical and effective planning and application
* Experience-based advice for facing challenges posed by mainstream and social media
* Provocative case studies that bring home the key principles and strategies
* Illuminating case diaries that use the author's breadth and depth of experience to create extraordinary learning opportunities
The book is a necessity for managers, engineers, scientists, and others who must communicate difficult technical concepts to a concerned public. It also belongs on the bookshelves of leaders and communicators in public and private sector organizations looking for a one-stop reference and evidence-based practical guide for communicating effectively in emotionally charged situations. Written by a highly successful academic, consultant, and trainer, the book is also designed as a resource for training and education.
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VINCENT T. COVELLO, PhD, is a leading expert in risk, crisis, and high stress communications. He is currently Director of the Center for Risk Communication in New York City, an organization that applies evidence-based knowledge to a wide range of high concern, high stakes situations. He has served as a senior adviser to the World Health Organization, the US Department of Health and Human Services, the US Environmental Protection Agency, the US Department of Agriculture, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and other national and international organizations. Over the past 40 years, Dr. Covello has published more than 150 scientific articles on risk, crisis, and high stress communications.
Content
A Note from the Series Editor xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Author Biography xvii
1 The Critical Role of Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 1
1.1 Case Diary: A Collision of Facts and Perceptions 2
1.2 What Will Readers Find in This Book? 3
1.3 Why You Will Use This Book 4
1.4 The Need for This Book - Now 5
1.4.1 New Literature, New Research 5
1.4.2 Changes in the Communications Landscape 6
1.4.3 Changes in Journalism and the Perception of Facts 7
1.4.4 Changes in Laws, Regulations, and Societal Expectations 7
1.4.5 Changes in Concerns about Health, Safety, and the Environment 7
1.4.6 Changes in Levels of Trust 7
1.4.7 Changes in the Global Political Environment 8
1.4.8 The COVID- 19 Pandemic and the Changed Communication Landscape 8
2 Core Concepts 11
2.1 Case Diary: Recognizing Change as a High Concern Issue 11
2.2 Defining the Concept and Term Risk 13
2.3 Defining the Concept and Term Risk Communication 14
2.4 Risk Communication and Its Relationship to Risk Analysis 17
2.5 Defining the Concepts and Terms High Concern and High Concern Communication 19
2.6 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis 22
2.7 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis Communication 24
2.8 Chapter Resources 25
Endnotes 31
3 An Overview of Risk Communication 33
3.1 Case Diary: Complex Issues Destroy Homes 33
3.2 Challenges and Difficulties Faced in Communicating Risk Information 35
3.2.1 Characteristics and Limitations of Scientific and Technical Data about Risks 35
3.2.2 Characteristics and Limitations of Spokespersons in Communicating Information about Risks 35
3.2.2.1 Case Study: "Go Hard, Go Early": Risk Communication Lessons from New Zealand's Response to COVID-19 37
3.2.3 Characteristics and Limitations of Risk Management Regulations and Standards 41
3.2.3.1 Debates and Disagreements 41
3.2.3.2 Limited Resources for Risk Assessment and Management 41
3.2.3.3 Underestimating the Difficulty of and Need for Risk Communication 42
3.2.3.4 Lack of Coordination and Collaboration 42
3.2.4 Characteristics and Limitations of Traditional Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks 42
3.2.5 Characteristics and Limitations of Social Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks 43
3.2.6 Characteristics and Limitations of People in their Ability to Evaluate and Interpret Risk Information 44
3.3 Changes in How the Brain Processes Information Under Conditions of High Stress 48
3.4 Risk Communication Theory 49
3.4.1 Trust Determination Theory 49
3.4.2 Negative Dominance Theory 50
3.4.3 Mental Noise Theory 50
3.4.4 Risk Perception Theory 50
3.5 Risk Communication Principles and Guidelines 55
3.5.1 Principle 1. Accept and Involve All Interested and Affected Persons as Legitimate Partners 55
3.5.2 Principle 2. Plan Carefully and Evaluate Performance 55
3.5.3 Principle 3. Listen to Your Audience 57
3.5.4 Principle 4. Be Honest, Frank, and Open 57
3.5.5 Principle 5. Coordinate and Collaborate with Other Credible Sources 58
3.5.6 Principle 6. Meet the Needs of Traditional and Social Media 58
3.5.7 Principle 7. Speak Clearly and with Compassion 58
3.6 Key Takeaway Concepts and Conclusions from this Overview Chapter 59
3.7 Chapter Resources 59
Endnotes 66
4 Development of Risk Communication Theory and Practice 69
4.1 Case Diary: Origin Story 69
4.2 Introduction 70
4.2.1 Historical Phase 1: Presenting Risk Numbers 71
4.2.2 Historical Phase 2: Listening and Planning 71
4.2.3 Historical Phase 3: Stakeholder Engagement 72
4.2.4 Covello and Sandman's Four Stages of Risk Communication 72
4.2.4.1 Stage 1: Ignore the Public 73
4.2.4.2 Stage 2: Explaining Risk Data Better 73
4.2.4.3 Stage 3: Stakeholder Engagement 77
4.2.4.4 Stage 4: Empowerment 78
4.3 Summary 79
4.4 Chapter Resources 79
Endnotes 83
5 Stakeholder Engagement and Empowerment 87
5.1 Case Diary: A Town Hall Public Meeting Goes Very Wrong 87
5.2 Introduction 89
5.3 Levels of Stakeholder Engagement 91
5.3.1 Types of Stakeholder Engagement 93
5.4 Benefits of Stakeholder Engagement 95
5.5 Limitations and Challenges of Stakeholder Engagement 96
5.6 Techniques and Approaches for Effective Stakeholder Engagement 97
5.7 Meetings with Stakeholders 100
5.7.1 Town Hall Meetings 101
5.7.2 Open House Meetings/Information Workshops 102
5.7.3 Tips for Meetings with Stakeholders 102
5.8 Chapter Resources 104
Endnotes 107
6 Communicating in a Crisis 111
6.1 Case Diary: The Challenge of Partnership in a Crisis 112
6.2 The Three Phases of a Crisis 113
6.3 Communication in the Precrisis Preparedness Phase 115
6.3.1 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Potential Crises 117
6.3.2 Case Study: The 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 118
6.3.3 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify Goals and Objectives 120
6.3.4 Precrisis Communication Activity: Develop a Crisis Communication Plan 121
6.3.5 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify, Train, and Test Crisis Communication Spokespersons 124
6.3.6 Precrisis Communication Activity: Engaging Stakeholders 124
6.3.7 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Stakeholders' Questions and Concerns 126
6.3.8 Drafting Messages for Anticipated Stakeholder Questions and Concerns 126
6.3.9 Precrisis Communication Activity: Conducting Exercises to Test the Crisis Communication Plan 128
6.3.10 Precrisis Communication Activity: Incident Command System (ICS) and the Joint Information Center (JIC) 129
6.4 Communications in the Crisis Response Phase 130
6.4.1 Case Study: Lac-Mégantic Rail Tragedy 134
6.4.2 Disaster and Emergency Warnings 136
6.4.2.1 Designing Effective Warnings 137
6.4.2.2 Steps in the Disaster and Emergency Warning Process 137
6.5 Communicating Effectively about Blame, Accountability, and Responsibility 139
6.6 Communicating an Apology 140
6.6.1 Case Study: Maple Leaf Foods and the Listeria Food Contamination Crisis 141
6.6.2 Case Study: Southwest Airlines Apology 144
6.7 Communications in the Postcrisis Recovery Phase 145
6.7.1 Case Study and Case Diary: New York City's Communication Trials by Fire, from West Nile to 9/11 146
6.7.2 Case Study: Johnson & Johnson and the Tylenol Tampering Case 147
6.7.3 Case Study: Flint, Michigan and Contaminated Drinking Water 149
6.8 Chapter Resources 151
Endnotes 159
7 Foundational Principles: Perceptions, Biases, and Information Filters 165
7.1 Case Diary: "A" Is for "Apples" 165
7.2 Message Perception and Reception in High Concern Situations 168
7.3 Message Filter Theory: A Set of Principles Drawn from the Behavioral and Neuroscience Literature 169
7.4 Case Study: COVID- 19 and Risk Perception Factors 171
7.4.1 Social Amplification Filters 173
7.4.2 Mental Shortcut Filters 174
7.4.3 Knowledge and Belief Filters 176
7.4.4 Personality Filters 177
7.4.5 Negative Dominance/Loss Aversion Filters 177
7.5 Message Filters and the Brain 179
7.6 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Models of Human Behavior 179
7.7 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Persuasion 180
7.8 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Ethics 181
7.9 Message Filters and the Issue of Acceptable Risk 182
7.9.1 Factors in Determining Acceptable Risk 183
7.9.2 Strategies for Addressing Acceptable Risk 184
7.10 The Message is in the Mind of the Receiver 186
7.11 Chapter Resources 186
Endnotes 192
8 Foundational Principles: Trust, Culture, and Worldviews 197
8.1 Case Diary: A Disease Outbreak in Africa 198
8.2 Trust Determination 200
8.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Trust 201
8.3.1 Trust and First Impressions 203
8.3.2 Loss of Trust 204
8.3.3 Gaining Trust 206
8.3.3.1 Gaining Trust through Stakeholder Engagement 206
8.3.3.2 Gaining Trust through Trust Transference 206
8.3.3.3 Gaining Trust through Actions and Behavior 207
8.4 Case Study: Trust and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident 207
8.5 Case Diary: The Fukushima Japan Nuclear Power Plant Accident 208
8.6 Gaining Trust in High- Stakes Negotiations 210
8.7 Case Diary: Gaining Trust and the SARS Outbreak in Hong Kong 211
8.8 Trust and Culture 212
8.9 Cultural Competency 212
8.9.1 Different Communication Styles 213
8.9.2 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conflict 214
8.9.3 Different Nonverbal Communication 214
8.9.4 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Decision Making 214
8.9.5 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Information Disclosure 215
8.9.6 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Knowing 215
8.9.7 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conversation and Discourse 215
8.9.8 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward the Use of Humor 215
8.10 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Cultural Theory 215
8.11 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Worldviews 217
8.12 Case Diary: Fame, Family, and Fear in Public Health Communications 218
8.13 Chapter Resources 221
Endnotes 227
9 Best Practices for Message Development in High Concern Situations 231
9.1 Case Diary: Mapping Through a Maze of COVID Confusion 231
9.2 Introduction 232
9.3 Crafting Messages in the Context of Stress and High Concern Decision- Making 233
9.3.1 Trust Determination and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 233
9.3.1.1 The CCO Best Practice 233
9.3.2 Impaired Comprehension and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 234
9.3.3 Negative Dominance and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 234
9.3.4 Emotional Impact and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 235
9.3.4.1 Case Study: Hoarding Toilet Paper at the Outset of the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic 236
9.4 Message Mapping 238
9.4.1 Benefits of Message Maps 238
9.4.2 Message Maps and the Brain 241
9.4.3 The Development of Message Mapping 243
9.4.4 Case Study: Message Maps and Asbestos 244
9.4.5 Steps in Developing a Message Map 245
9.4.5.1 Step 1: Identify, Profile, and Prioritize Key Stakeholders 245
9.4.5.2 Step 2: Develop Lists of Stakeholder Questions and Concerns 248
9.4.5.3 Case Study: Stakeholder Questions, Terrorism, and Disasters 249
9.4.5.4 Step 3: Develop Key Messages 249
9.4.5.5 Step 4: Develop Supporting Information 252
9.4.5.6 Step 5: Testing the Message Map 253
9.4.5.7 Step 6: Repurpose Maps through Appropriate Information Channels 254
9.5 Summary 254
9.6 Chapter Resources 255
Endnotes 263
Appendices 265
Appendix 9.1 265
Appendix 9.2 267
Appendix 9.3 277
Appendix 9.4 280
10 Communicating Numbers, Statistics, and Technical Information about a Risk or Threat 285
10.1 Case Diary: A Civil Action 285
10.2 Introduction 288
10.3 Case Study: Numbers, Statistics, and COVID-19 289
10.4 Brain Processes That Filter How Technical Information about Risk or Threat Is Received and Understood 292
10.4.1 Risk and Threat Perception Filters 293
10.4.2 Thought Processing Filters 294
10.4.3 Mental Model Filters 294
10.4.4 Emotional Filters 295
10.4.5 Motivational Filters 295
10.5 Challenges in Explaining Technical Information About a Risk or Threat 296
10.6 Framing 297
10.7 Technical Jargon 298
10.8 Information Clarity 299
10.9 Units of Measurement 300
10.10 Case Study: Risk Numbers, Risk Statistics, and the Challenger Accident 303
10.11 Comparisons 304
10.12 Lessons Learned 308
10.13 Chapter Resources 308
Endnotes 315
11 Evaluating Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communications 321
11.1 Case Diary: Finding the Road to Rio 321
11.1.1 The Mosquito Front 322
11.1.2 The Citizen Front 322
11.1.3 The Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front 323
11.1.4 Communication Strategy: The Citizen Front 323
11.1.5 Communication Strategy: Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front 323
11.2 Introduction 324
11.3 Benefits of Evaluation 326
11.4 Evaluation Practices for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 327
11.5 Case Studies of Evaluation Comparison to Best Practice: Hurricane Katrina, COVID-19
and Vaccination Hesitancy, and Outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China 329
11.5.1 Hurricane Katrina 329
11.5.2 COVID-19 and Vaccination Hesitancy 330
11.5.3 Outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China 330
11.6 Barriers and Challenges to Evaluation 332
11.6.1 Differences in Values 332
11.6.2 Differences in Goals 332
11.6.3 Competition for Resources 332
11.6.4 Ability to Learn from Results 333
11.7 Evaluation Measures 338
11.7.1 Process/Implementation Evaluation Measures 338
11.7.2 Outcome/Impact Evaluation Measures 339
11.7.3 Formative Evaluation Measures 340
11.8 An Integrated Approach to Evaluation 341
11.9 Resource: Case Study of Focus Group Testing of Mosquito-Control Messages, Florida, 2018-2019 342
11.10 Evaluation Tools 347
11.11 Chapter Resources 348
Endnotes 353
12 Communicating with Mainstream News Media 357
12.1 Case Diary: A High Stakes Chess Game with a News Media Outlet 357
12.2 Introduction 359
12.3 Characteristics of the Mainstream News Media 361
12.3.1 Content 361
12.3.2 Clarity 362
12.3.3 Avoiding Prejudice 362
12.3.4 Topicality 362
12.3.5 Diversity 363
12.3.6 Subject Matter Expertise 363
12.3.7 Resources 363
12.3.8 Career Advancement 364
12.3.9 Watchdogs 364
12.3.10 Amplifiers 364
12.3.11 Skepticism 364
12.3.12 Source Dependency 365
12.3.13 Professionalism and Independence 365
12.3.14 Covering Uncertainty 366
12.3.15 Legal Constraints 366
12.3.16 Special Populations 366
12.3.17 Competition 366
12.3.18 Confidentiality and Protection of Sources 367
12.3.19 Deadlines 367
12.3.20 Trust 367
12.3.21 Storytelling 368
12.3.22 Balance and Controversy 368
12.4 Guidelines and Best Practices for Interacting with Mainstream News Media 368
12.5 The Media Interview 370
12.6 Lessons and Trends 375
12.7 Case Diary: A Ten-Round Exercise 377
12.8 Chapter Resources 378
Endnotes 381
13 Social Media and the Changing Landscape for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 385
13.1 Case Diary: Myth-Busting: Mission Impossible? 385
13.2 Introduction 387
13.3 Benefits of Social Media Outlets for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 389
13.3.1 Speed 389
13.3.2 Access 390
13.3.3 Reach 390
13.3.4 Amplification 390
13.3.5 Transparency 390
13.3.6 Understanding 390
13.3.7 Changes in Behaviors 391
13.3.8 Relationship Building 391
13.3.9 Timeliness 391
13.3.10 Hyperlocal Specificity 391
13.3.11 Listening and Feedback 392
13.3.12 Taking Advantage of the Benefits of Social Media 392
13.4 Challenges of Social Media for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 393
13.4.1 Rising Expectations 393
13.4.2 Repostings/Redistribution 393
13.4.3 Permanent Storage 394
13.4.4 Hacking/Security 394
13.4.5 Rise and Fall of Social Media Platforms 394
13.4.6 Resources 394
13.4.7 Privacy and Confidentiality 394
13.4.8 Cognitive Overload 395
13.4.9 Players on the Field 395
13.4.10 Misinformation, Disinformation, and Rumors 395
13.5 Case Study: Social Media and the 2007 and 2011 Shooter Incidents at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) 397
13.6 Case Study: Social Media and the 2013 Southern Alberta/Calgary Flood 398
13.7 Best Practices for Using Social Media in Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Situations 400
13.7.1 Create a Social Media Plan 400
13.7.2 Staff Appropriately for Social Media Communication 400
13.7.3 Ensure Continuous Updating 401
13.7.4 Identify Your Partners 401
13.7.5 Assess and Reassess Your Selection of Platforms 401
13.7.6 Create and Maintain as Many Social Media Accounts as You and Your Stakeholders Need 401
13.7.7 Be Prepared for the Special Social Media Requirements and Pressures in a Crisis 401
13.7.8 Provide Guidance for Employees and Engage Them in the Process 402
13.7.9 Don't Skip Evaluation 403
13.8 Case Diary: Social Media and the Negative Power of"Junk"Information about Risks and Threats 403
13.9 Lessons Learned and Trends 404
13.10 Chapter Resources 404
Endnotes 408
Index 411
1
The Critical Role of Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
This chapter addresses the role - and necessity - of successful communication in situations involving risk, high stress concerns, or crisis. It describes the book's intent to serve both as a handbook for individuals and as a resource for training and education. At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- describe the professional value of learning about risk communication principles and skills,
- identify how recent changes in the social and technical environment affect communication practices, and
- relate the organization and contents of this book to your individual needs.
The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken place.
-George Bernard Shaw
This book is about communicating with people in the most challenging circumstances: high stress situations. The ability to communicate effectively in a high stress situation is an essential communication competency. It is a competency that differs in significant ways from other generic communication skills. If done well, it can build trust and agreement, enabling beneficial solutions and constructive behaviors even in the face of fear and anxiety. In a public health or environmental hazard situation, it can save lives. Poor communication in high stress situations can have disastrous consequences, whether the loss of a business or the failure to resolve a high impact policy or operational issue. Professionals in every field can be thrust into situations demanding specialized high stress communications skills, whether they are confronting an external crisis or leading organizational change. I wrote this book so that you can be prepared.
As a manager or technical professional, you likely have a logical, research-based approach for addressing complex issues. You strive to ensure that people and communities benefit from this expertise. Yet all too often, the individuals and populations you serve do not share your trained perspective and thought processes; they do not consider your facts, judgements, and decisions persuasive, especially in situations fraught with high concern.
Enabling technical expertise to inform decisions and policy outcomes requires a body of well-researched knowledge and trained skills in risk, high concern, and crisis communication. Without this knowledge and related skills, the negative consequences can be major.
1.1 Case Diary: A Collision of Facts and Perceptions
A few years ago, an established nuclear research facility hired me as a consultant. The facility housed a nuclear reactor used for high-level research. It was also near a densely populated community that sat above a protected aquifer. This aquifer was the community's sole source of local drinking water.
The site managers contacted me with concerns about a local newspaper article on this nuclear reactor. The article reported the facility's nuclear reactor had leaked radioactive water for over a decade. Site managers and engineers had reportedly known about the leak for years. The leak resulted from a hairline crack, but the amount of the leaking radioactive water was well below levels that could cause human health consequences.
Leadership did not report the leak because they feared community outrage. They believed the public could misunderstand the science and react irrationally, even though the technical facts proved there was no significant environmental impact. Revealing the leak to the surrounding community might lead to unwarranted fear and panic and give ammunition to activists who were lobbying to shut down the reactor.
Unfortunately, the article also reported an internal poll of managers and engineers at the facility, asking how they would like to spend the facility's end-of-year funding surplus. Respondents had two primary choices:
- repair the hairline crack and stop the leak of radioactive water, or
- support work enhancements, including refreshments for the facility's visiting speaker program.
The facility's employees - applying their scientific knowledge and logic that the hairline crack was inconsequential - chose the refreshments.
I was hired to consult after the publication of this newspaper article. The engineers and managers explained to me, in meticulous technical detail, the nature of the crack and why the amount of radioactive water leaking into the community's aquifer was miniscule and posed no threat to human health.
After I sat and listened to a variety of technical presentations, I conducted a training on basic principles of risk, high concern, and crisis communication. I agreed that accurate technical facts were essential for decision-making, but facts by themselves were not always sufficient. Technical facts are only one factor that influences public fears and risk perceptions. Emotional factors also drive decision-making. Trust is based on attributes, including caring and concern. People in high-stress situations need to know you care before they will listen to you. I pointed out that nuclear power and radiation is a highly emotionally charged issue and raises high levels of anxiety for the public.
I predicted the public would perceive the facility's actions as a major breach of trust, notwithstanding the actual lack of potential harm. I recommended actions the managers and engineers could still take to regain trust and counter community anger and outrage. These recommendations included a sincere apology for not communicating early and a commitment to restore trust and ensure the mistakes would not be repeated. Such actions included environmental restoration and creation of a community advisory committee with significant oversight powers.
Unfortunately, I was brought into this situation too late. An avalanche of negative stories followed the first newspaper article, triggering community outrage before leadership could implement any of the recommended actions. Outrage was further fueled by the publication of a previously unrevealed government report that cataloged a long history of environmental shortcomings at this facility. That report cited the facility for failing to respond to the discovery of a leak of radioactive water over 10 years earlier and described delays on promises to make environmental improvements.
Government agencies withdrew their support for continued operation of the reactor, citing environmental and economic concerns. Community and environmental groups pressured government representatives to deny the reactor a permit to continue to operate. The nuclear reactor was indefinitely closed, and all the scientific research it supported ended.
I began Chapter 1 with this story because it encapsulates several vital lessons:
First, effective communication is critical to the effective prevention of and response to risks, high concern issues, and crises.
Second, trust is a prerequisite for communicating successfully about controversial and emotionally charged issues.
Third, organizations and institutions interact with their environments, eco-systems, and communities. Those responsible for leading those organizations and managing them at every level must understand how stakeholders view what they do; they must seek and be prepared for stakeholder engagement, and they must build - and earn - and nurture trust from those interested or affected.
Fourth, leaders, managers, supervisors, and technical professionals require training in the principles of trust, stakeholder perceptions, and communication about risks, high concerns, and crises prior to encountering situations that require effective communication.
If the facility managers and engineers in this story had learned and applied the principles and values discussed in the chapters to follow, the research reactor would likely be in operation today.
1.2 What Will Readers Find in This Book?
This book identifies the principles underlying effective communication in situations where there is risk, crisis, or other causes of high concern. This book describes both the differences between and similarities among the situations of risk, crisis, and high concern, describing principles that underlie all such situations and practices specific to each. Previous books have written about these topics, but there are now important new fields of scientific inquiry and enormous new challenges in the communication environment. Inquiries are taking place on diverse fronts, including scientists and experts in anthropology, economics, engineering, epidemiology, law, psychology, sociology, media studies, medicine, statistics, toxicology, and neuroscience. Each discipline has generated publications related to risk, high concern, and crisis communication, and each adds to the understanding of the practice. However, with few exceptions, nearly all existing resources focus on a specific subset of the literature, on a specific area (e.g. bioterrorism, nuclear power, climate change, or genetically modified foods), or on topics of direct interest to the authors' discipline. As a result, the literature has become highly specialized and dispersed.
While this literature specialization serves experts within specific disciplines, it is less useful for the many professionals who work outside of these explicit fields and who may encounter any one of a wide range of challenges. This book offers a common framework of the major principles, strategies, and tools and...
