
Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World
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Content
- Front Cover
- Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World
- Copyright Page
- The Editors
- Alphabetical List of Articles
- Subject Classification
- Introduction
- Contributors
- List of Abbreviations
- A
- Abkhaz
- Bibliography
- Adamawa-Ubangi
- The Speakers
- Study of the Group
- Classification
- Structural Features
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Grammar and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Africa as a Linguistic Area
- Earlier Work
- Pan-African Properties
- Quantitative Evidence
- Isopleth Mapping
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Afrikaans
- Introduction
- History
- Varieties of Afrikaans
- Formal Features
- The Taalmonument
- Afrikaans was Written in Arabic
- Lexical Borrowings
- Bibliography
- Afroasiatic Languages
- Introduction
- Classification and Geographical Origin
- History of the Investigation of Afroasiatic Languages
- Shared Features
- Bibliography
- Ainu
- Bibliography
- Akan
- Dialects and Their Distribution
- History and Development
- Sociolinguistic Situation
- Aspects of the Ethnography of Speaking
- Major Linguistic Features
- The Sounds of Akan
- Consonants
- Vowels and Vowel Harmony
- Tone
- Word Formation
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Syntax
- Word Order
- Postpositions
- Serial Constructions
- Bibliography
- Akkadian
- Grammatical Sketch
- Sources
- Bibliography
- Albanian
- Linguistic Type
- Geographic Spread
- Dialects
- Codification
- Present and Future Trends
- Bibliography
- Algonquian and Ritwan Languages
- Classification
- Demography
- Typological Characteristics
- Phonology
- Inflectional Morphology
- Derivational Morphology
- Syntax
- Mixed Languages
- Philology and Documentation
- Bibliography
- Altaic Languages
- Altaic as 'Ural-Altaic'
- Altaic as 'Micro-Altaic'
- The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic Relationship
- Korean and Japanese
- Bibliography
- Amharic
- Introductory Remarks
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Anatolian Languages
- The Anatolian Languages
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Lexicon
- Particles
- Division into Dialects
- Origins
- Bibliography
- Ancient Egyptian and Coptic
- Middle Egyptian
- Late Egyptian
- Coptic
- Bibliography
- Andean Languages
- Bibliography
- Arabic
- History of the Language
- The Present Situation
- Modern Standard Arabic
- Arabic Dialects
- Structure of Arabic
- Phonology
- Phonology of the Dialects
- Morphology
- Derivational Morphology
- Noun Inflection
- Pronouns
- Verb Inflection
- Morphology of the Dialects
- Syntax
- Tense and Aspect
- Word Order
- Agreement
- Equational Sentences
- Subordination
- Relative Clauses
- Syntax of the Dialects
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Arabic as an Introflecting Language
- Root and Pattern
- Verbal Morphology
- Nominal Morphology
- Singular Nouns and Adjectives
- Broken Plurals and Diminutives
- Elatives (Comparatives, Superlatives)
- Inflectional Morphology
- Sound Plural and Dual
- Bibliography
- Arabic Languages, Variation in
- Introduction
- A Historical Sketch
- Varieties of Arabic
- Standard Arabic
- The Dialects
- Common Dimensions of Variation in Arab Communities
- Aramaic and Syriac
- Origin and Expansion
- Phases and Dialects
- Dialects and Religious Communities
- Bibliography
- Arawak Languages
- Bibliography
- Areal Linguistics
- Introduction: Defining the Concept
- Examples of Linguistic Areas
- The Balkans
- South Asia (the Indian Subcontinent)
- Mesoamerica
- The Northwest Coast of North America
- The Baltic
- Ethiopia
- How Linguistic Areas Are Defined
- Implications of Areal Linguistics for Linguistic Reconstruction and Subgrouping
- Areal Linguistics and Proposals of Distant Genetic Relationship
- Kinds of 'Linguistic Area'
- Linguistic Areas versus Borrowing Generally
- Bibliography
- Armenian
- The Lord's Prayer in Different Varieties of Armenian, Rendered in the IPA Classical Armenian (Emiatsin ms. 229, 989 A.D.)
- Standard Eastern Armenian
- Standard Western Armenian
- Zeytun Dialect (Cilicia, South-Central Turkey)
- Kesab
- Bibliography
- Arrernte
- Bibliography
- Artificial Languages
- Bibliography
- Assamese
- Bibliography
- Australia: Language Situation
- Introduction
- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages
- Language Relationships
- Linguistic Characteristics
- Pidgins and Creoles
- Community Languages
- Aboriginal English
- Australian English
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Australian Languages
- Introduction
- Classification
- Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Semantics
- Avoidance and Secret Vocabularies
- Sign Language
- The Future of Australian Languages
- Bibliography
- Austric Hypothesis
- Bibliography
- Austroasiatic Languages
- Bibliography
- Austronesian Languages
- The Language Family and Its Speakers
- Internal Genetic Relationships and Reconstruction
- Linguistic Features
- Historical Interpretation
- Possible External Genetic Relationships
- Bibliography
- Austro-Tai Hypotheses
- Bibliography
- Avestan
- Bibliography
- Aymaraacute
- Bibliography
- Azerbaijanian
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- B
- Bactrian
- Bibliography
- Balinese
- History and Sociolinguistics
- Orthography and Phonology
- Morphosyntax
- Bibliography
- Balkans as a Linguistic Area
- Definitions
- Sprachbund
- Balkan
- The Balkan Languages
- Romani
- Turkish
- Jewish Languages
- Balkan Languages vs. Languages of the Balkans
- History of Balkan Linguistics
- 1770-1861
- 1861 Onward
- Balkanisms
- Phonology
- Vowel Reduction and Raising
- Stressed Schwa
- Other Vowels
- Consonants
- Prosody
- Morphosyntax
- Grammaticalized Definiteness
- Resumptive Clitic Pronouns (Reduplication, Replication)
- Genitive-Dative Merger
- Analytic Case Relations
- Analytic Gradation of Adjectives
- Numeral Formation: The Teens
- Analytic Subjunctive
- Futures in 'Will' and 'Have'
- Future in Past as Conditional
- Perfect in 'Have'
- Evidential
- Other
- Word Order
- Clitic Ordering
- Constituent Order
- Lexicon, Semantics, and Derivational Morphology
- Sociolinguistics
- Causation
- Bibliography
- Balochi
- Bibliography
- Balto-Slavic Languages
- Bibliography
- Bantu Languages
- Introduction
- Classifications
- History
- Typology
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Bashkir
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Basque
- Bibliography
- Belorussian
- Bibliography
- Bengali
- Orthography and Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Special Features
- Bibliography
- Benue-Congo Languages
- Greenberg's View of Benue-Congo
- Views of Benue-Congo- in the Late Twentieth Century
- Subgrouping of (New) Benue-Congo
- Geographical Location
- Typological Characteristics of the Group
- Bibliography
- Berber
- Introduction
- The Berber-Speaking Regions
- Linguistic Features
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology
- Constituent Order
- Predicate Nominals and Related Constructions
- Aspect
- Further Resources
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Bikol
- Bibliography
- Bislama
- Bibliography
- Brahui
- Phonology
- Syntax
- Word Classes
- Word Order
- Sentences Without the Copular Verb
- Gender and Number
- Agreement
- Noun Morphology
- Plural Suffix
- Case Suffixes and Postpositions
- Pronouns
- Numerals
- Verb Morphology
- Verb Bases
- Finite Verbs
- Nonfinite Verbs
- Bibliography
- Breton
- Bibliography
- Bulgarian
- Bibliography
- Burmese
- Introduction
- History and Script
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology
- Literacy and Literary Burmese
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Burushaski
- Bibliography
- C
- Caddoan Languages
- Language Structure
- History and Scholarship
- Bibliography
- Cape Verdean Creole
- Bibliography
- Cariban Languages
- Comparative Studies and Classification
- Main Linguistic Features
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon and Semantics
- Bibliography
- Catalan
- Geography and Demography
- Genetic Relationship and Typological Features
- Dialects
- History
- Present Sociolinguistic Situation
- Bibliography
- Caucasian Languages
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Kinship
- Bibliography
- Cebuano
- What Cebuano Is Like in Comparison with Tagalog
- Bibliography
- Celtic
- Bibliography
- Central Siberian Yupik as a Polysynthetic Language
- An Overview of the Central Siberian Yupik Word
- Polysynthesis Illustrated by CSY Postbases
- Productive Postbases: Neither Derivation nor Inflection?
- Consequences for a Productive Noninflectional Concatenation View of Polysynthesis for Morphological Theory
- Bibliography
- Central Solomon Languages
- Relationships Among the Languages
- Typological Characteristics
- Bibliography
- Chadic Languages
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Chibchan
- Subgrouping
- External Relationships
- Typology
- Bibliography
- Chimakuan Languages
- The Family and its Recognition
- The Data
- Bibliography
- Chinantec: Phonology
- Bibliography
- Chinese
- The State of the Art
- Spoken Chinese
- Dialect Classification and Distribution
- Putonghua as Lingua Franca
- Modern Standard Spoken Chinese
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Pragmatics
- Written Chinese
- Writing Script Reform: Alphabetization Versus Simplification
- The Reform of Archaic Written Chinese
- Three Major Dialects
- The Yue Group: Hong Kong Cantonese
- The Wu Group: Shanghainese
- The Min Group: Fuzhou Dialect
- Sound Illustrations
- Chinese Information Processing
- Bibliography
- Chinese as an Isolating Language
- Isolating Defined as Having Monomorphemic Words
- Isolating Defined as Having Clearly Identifiable Morphemes
- Bibliography
- Choco Languages
- Present Indians of Western Colombia
- Retrospective of Linguistic Studies and Attempts to Classify the Emberas
- Present Regionalization of the Embera Indians
- Present State of Studies on the Embera Language
- Bibliography
- Chorasmian
- Bibliography
- Chukotko-Kamchatkan Languages
- Chukotko-Kamchatkan
- Bibliography
- Church Slavonic
- Bibliography
- Chuvash
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Classification of Languages
- Classification of Languages
- Genetic Classification
- Diffusion
- Lexicostatistics
- Beyond the Language Family
- Isolates
- Pidgins and Creoles
- Status of the Groupings Used in the Classification
- Afroasiatic Languages
- Altaic Languages
- Australian Languages
- Austroasiatic Languages
- Austronesian Languages
- Caucasian Languages
- Chukotko-Kamchatkan Languages
- Dravidian Languages
- Eskimo-Aleut
- Indo-European
- Khoesaan Languages
- Languages of the Americas
- Languages of North America
- Languages of Central America
- Languages of South America
- Niger-Congo Languages
- Nilo-Saharan
- Papuan Languages
- Sino-Tibetan
- Tai Languages
- Uralic Languages
- Bibliography
- Cornish
- Bibliography
- Cree
- Inflexion
- Number in Inflexion and Derivation
- Derivation
- Noun Incorporation
- Verbal Art
- Dialects, Speakers, Sources
- Bibliography
- Creek
- Historical Background
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Noun Morphology
- Verb Morphology
- Syntax
- For Further Study
- Bibliography
- Crow
- Location, Speakers, and External Relationships
- Orthography and Phonology
- Morphology
- Morphosyntax
- Bibliography
- Cupentildeo
- Bibliography
- Cushitic Languages
- The Question of Omotic
- Typological Characteristics of Cushitic Languages
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Czech
- Bibliography
- D
- Danish
- History
- Orthography
- Pronunciation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Language Authorities
- Bibliography
- Dardic
- History and Development
- Phonological Characteristics
- Morphosyntax
- Bibliography
- Dhivehi
- General
- Phonology
- Orthography
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Diachronic Morphological Typology
- Diachronic Origins of Affixes
- Prefixes and Suffixes
- Infixes
- Circumfixes
- Summary
- The Suffixing Preference
- Affixes in Verb Forms
- Affixes in Nominal Forms
- Summary
- Fusional, Agglutinating, Isolating
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Dinka
- Bibliography
- Dogon
- Bibliography
- Domari
- Definitions
- History
- The sound system
- Morphology
- Nominal forms
- Verbs
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Dravidian Languages
- Languages and Subgroups
- Phonology
- Vowel System
- Consonant System
- Syntax
- Word Classes
- Word Order
- Agreement
- Equational Sentences without the Copula
- Dative-Subject Sentences
- Complex Sentences
- Noun Morphology
- Plural Suffixes
- Case Suffixes
- Pronouns
- Numerals
- Verb Morphology
- Finite Verbs
- Tenses
- Negative Finite Verbs
- Personal Suffixes
- Imperative
- Nonfinite Verbs
- Auxiliary Verbs
- Contact between Dravidian and Indo-Aryan
- Bibliography
- Dutch
- Genetic Relationship
- History
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Vocabulary
- Orthography
- Sample Sentence
- Regional and Social Variation
- Influence on Other Languages
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- E
- Eblaite
- Sources
- Grammar Features
- Personal Pronouns
- Nouns
- Prepositions
- Verbs
- Bibliography
- Efik
- Background
- Classification
- Efik Tone
- Bibliography
- Elamite
- Bibliography
- Endangered Languages
- Language Endangerment
- Levels of Language Endangerment
- What Is Lost?
- Taxonomy of Endangerment Situations
- Assessing Language Vitality
- Intergenerational Transmission
- Absolute Numbers of Speakers
- Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population
- Trends in Existing Language Domains
- Response to New Domains and Media
- Materials for Language Education and Literacy
- Governmental and Institutional Attitudes and Policies
- Causes of Language Shift
- Strengthening Language Vitality
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- English in the Present Day
- Introduction
- Orthography
- Phonology
- General
- American-British Differences
- Changes
- Lexis
- Morphology and Syntax
- General Characteristics
- Word Classes
- Noun Phrase Structure
- The Verb Group: Tense, Aspect, Modality, Mood, and Voice
- Clause and Sentence Structure
- Information Structure
- Changes
- American-British Differences
- Standardization and Prescriptivism
- The Future
- Bibliography
- English, African-American Vernacular
- Lexicon
- Discourse
- Syntax
- Phonology
- History
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- English, Early Modern
- Background
- Linguistic Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexis and Semantics
- Linguistic Diversity
- Bibliography
- Related Websites
- English, Later Modern (ca. 1700-1900)
- Introduction
- External History
- Morphology and Syntax
- Morphology
- Syntax: Regulation of Early Modern Variants
- Syntax: Innovations of the Late Modern Period
- Phonology
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Lexical Innovation
- Bibliography
- English, Middle English
- External History
- Internal History
- Graphology
- Phonology
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Grammar
- Inflexion
- Noun Phrase
- Verb Phrase
- Word Order
- Lexicon
- Norse Loans
- Latin Loans
- French Loans
- Typical Middle English
- Modern Work on Middle English
- Bibliography
- English, Old English
- Genetic Relationships
- Written Records
- From Germanic to Old English: Phonology
- Effects of Language Contact
- Grammatical Characteristics
- Bibliography
- English, Variation in Nonnative Varieties
- Native vs. Nonnative Varieties
- Native vs. Nonnative Speakers
- Variation
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Lexicon and Morphology
- Grammar
- Register
- Stigma and Grammatical Growth
- Theoretical Approaches
- Bibliography
- English: World Englishes
- Spread and Stratification
- Concentric Circle Model
- World Englishes Speech Communities
- Process of Nativization and Englishization
- Models of Description
- Conceptual Myths
- Constructing Identities of Englishes
- World Englishes and Conceptual Frameworks
- Literary Creativity, Canonicity, and World Englishes
- The Pandora's Box and World Englishes
- Bibliography
- Eskimo-Aleut
- The Terms 'Eskimo' and 'Aleut'
- History and Genetic Relationships
- Historiography of Research
- Linguistic Characteristics of Eskimo-Aleut
- Aleut
- Yupik
- Sirenikski
- Inuit
- Bibliography
- Esperanto
- Background
- Pronunciation and Orthography
- Morphology and Syntax
- Vocabulary
- General
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Estonian
- Bibliography
- Ethiopia as a Linguistic Area
- Introduction
- Research History
- Phonological Features
- Grammatical Features
- Lexical Features
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Ethiopian Semitic Languages
- Classification and Demography
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Ethnologue
- History of the Ethnologue
- The Problem of Language Identification
- Three-Letter Language Identifiers
- Endangered Languages
- Overview of Contents
- Bibliography
- Etruscan
- Bibliography
- Europe as a Linguistic Area
- Historical Overview
- Approaches
- The Egalitarian Approach
- The Segregating Approach
- Center vs. Periphery Approach
- More Isoglosses
- Phonology
- Rounded front vowels
- Quantity
- Morphology
- Morphological case distinctions
- Comitative-instrumental syncretism
- Cardinal-based derivation of ordinals
- Total reduplication
- Quintessence
- Europe as a Contact-Superposition Zone
- Bibliography
- Evenki
- General Characteristics: Sentence Structure and Morphonology
- Case, Number, and Possessivity
- Tense/Aspect System and Agreement
- Non-finite Verb Forms
- Voice System, Means of Valency Change, and Their Combinability
- Negation, Modality Markers, and Morphemic Ordening
- Bibliography
- Ewe
- History and Sociolinguistics
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- F
- Fanagalo
- Origins
- Structure
- Bibliography
- Fijian
- Bibliography
- Finnish
- Background
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Finnish as an Agglutinating Language
- Morphotactic Structure
- Inflectional Classes of Nominals
- Inflectional Classes of Verbs
- Morphophonological Alternations in Stems
- Morphophonological Alternations in Suffixes
- Fusion and Polyfunctional Suffixes
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Flores Languages
- Bibliography
- Formosan Languages
- Introduction
- The Languages Today
- History and Subgrouping
- The History of Formosan Language Studies
- The Structure of Formosan Languages
- Bibliography
- Franglais
- Bibliography
- French
- Number of Speakers and Geographical Distribution
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Orthography
- Morphology and Syntax
- Vocabulary
- Bibliography
- Fulfulde
- The Language Name
- The Language and Its Speakers
- Orthography
- Noun Class System
- Consonant Alternation
- Focus as a Salient Feature of Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology
- Linguistic Taboos
- Bibliography
- G
- Galician
- Language Classification
- Historical Overview
- Phonological System
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Gamilaraay
- Introduction
- Language Relationships
- Linguistic Characteristics
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Gz.schwaz.sblhrz.schwaz
- Bibliography
- Georgian
- Bibliography
- German
- The Speakers of German
- The History of German
- The Structure of Modern Standard German
- Sounds and Spelling
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Regional and Social Variation in German
- Bibliography
- Germanic Languages
- The Germanic Language Group
- The Origins and Early History of the Germanic Languages
- Bibliography
- Gikuyu
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Vowels
- Consonants
- Noun Classes
- The Concord System and Morphosyntax
- Word Order in Gitildekutildeyutilde: Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
- Tense and Aspect Marking
- Nominal Derivation
- Bibliography
- Goidelic Languages
- Sample Texts
- Irish
- Scottish Gaelic
- Manx
- Bibliography
- Gondi
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Syntax
- Word Classes
- Word Order
- Gender and Number
- Finite Verb Agreement
- Noun Morphology
- Plural Suffixes
- Case Suffixes and Postpositions
- Pronouns
- Numerals
- Verb Morphology
- Verb Bases
- Finite Verbs
- Nonfinite Verbs
- Bibliography
- Gothic
- Early History and Wulfila's Gothic
- Sample Text
- Other East Germanic Languages
- Influence of Gothic on Other Languages
- Later History and Crimean Gothic
- Bibliography
- Greek, Ancient
- External History
- Dialects
- Mycenaean
- 'Historical' Dialects
- 'Literary' Dialects
- Phonology
- Vowels
- Consonants
- Accent
- Morphology and Syntax
- Morphosyntax of Nominals
- Morphosyntax of Verbs
- Syntactic Typology
- Bibliography
- Greek, Modern
- General Overview
- Dialects of Modern Greek
- Sociolinguistic Setting and Other Diversity
- Structure of Modern Greek
- Bibliography
- Guaran iacute
- Bibliography
- Gujarati
- History and Literature
- Dialects
- Grammar
- Orthography
- Bibliography
- Gullah
- History
- Language Development
- Linguistic Characteristics
- Bibliography
- Gur Languages
- The Speakers
- Gur Studies
- Languages and Their Classification
- Structural Features
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Grammar and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Guugu Yimithirr
- The Language and Its Speakers
- Genetic Relations
- Basic Facts
- Shortening vs. Lengthening Suffixes and the Rhythmic Canons
- The Morphology and Semantics of Cardinal Directions
- The Syntax and Semantics of the 'Reflexive' Suffix -:thi
- Language Situation and Sociolinguistic Features
- Bibliography
- H
- Hausa
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Hawaiian
- Bibliography
- Hawaiian Creole English
- Bibliography
- Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
- A Holy Language
- Biblical Hebrew
- The Decline of Hebrew
- The Masoretes
- Hebrew in the Diaspora
- Literature
- Secular Contexts
- Hebrew in Other Languages
- The Study of Hebrew within Christianity
- Bibliography
- Hebrew, Israeli
- Basic Information
- Grammatical Profile
- Sound System
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Clauses
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Highland East Cushitic Languages
- Demography
- Classification
- Writing
- Typology
- Phonology
- Verb Morphology
- Noun Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Hiligaynon
- Bibliography
- Hindi
- Bibliography
- Hindustani
- Origin and Development
- Forms of Hindustani
- Hindustani as a Symbol of Unity
- Problems of Linguistic Description
- Bibliography
- Hiri Motu
- Bibliography
- Hittite
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Example
- Bibliography
- Hmong-Mien Languages
- Bibliography
- Hokan Languages
- History of Scholarship
- The Hokan Hypothesis
- Additions to the Hokan 'Core'
- Hokan as a Superstock or Phylum
- Further Comparative Studies
- The Hokan Languages Classified
- Northern Hokan
- Sonoma
- Northern California
- Great Basin
- California Coast
- Southern Hokan
- Southwest
- Coahuila
- Oaxaca
- Honduras
- Descriptive Work on Hokan Languages
- Characteristics of Hokan Languages
- Phonology
- Phonemic Contrasts in Hokan Languages
- Syllable Structure
- Grammar
- Alignment and Person Markers
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Interrogatives
- Quantifiers
- Word Order
- Sentence-level Constituents
- Noun Phrase
- Viability
- Bibliography
- Hopi
- Bibliography
- Hungarian
- History
- Names for the Language
- Language Description
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Hurrian
- Bibliography
- I
- I-dotjodot
- The Name 'Idotjodot'
- The Classification and Nomenclature of Idotjodot
- Geographical Location and Number of Speakers
- Typological Characteristics of the Group
- Bibliography
- Ilocano
- Bibliography
- Indo-Aryan Languages
- Distribution of Major Indo-Aryan Languages
- Historical Development
- Writing Systems
- Phonological Characteristics
- Morphosyntax
- Bibliography
- Indo-European Languages
- Comparative Reconstruction of the Indo-European Language Family Tree
- Revisions to Indo-European Language Theories
- Theories of Historical Language Change
- Other Theories
- Remaining Questions Regarding Classification of Indo-European Languages
- Definitions of Terms
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Indo-Iranian
- Indo-Iranian Phonology
- Morphology of Nouns and Pronouns
- Verb Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon
- Bibliography
- Inupiaq
- Introduction and Dialectology
- Phonology and Writing
- Morphology and Syntax
- Lexicon and Ethnonyms
- Population and Viability
- Bibliography
- Iranian Languages
- Old Iranian Languages
- Middle Iranian Languages
- New Iranian Languages
- Genetic Relationships among the Iranian Languages
- Characteristic Phonological Features of Iranian Languages
- Characteristic Features of Morphology and Points of Syntax
- Points of Historical Phonology
- Points of Historical Morphology and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Irish
- Iroquoian Languages
- The Iroquoian Family
- Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Italian
- Number of Speakers
- Genetic Relationships
- History
- External History
- Internal History
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Written Records
- Writing System
- Individual Characteristics
- Phonology
- Illustration
- Sociolinguistic Points
- Descendants
- Languages Influenced
- History of Linguistic Investigation
- Bibliography
- Italian as a Fusional Language
- Morphological Typology
- The Fusional Type
- Affixal Inflection and Agreement
- Cumulative Exponence in Adjectival Inflection
- Noun Inflection and Affixal Homonymy
- Traces of Case in Pronouns
- Verb Inflection
- Affixes
- Word Order Mobility
- Bibliography
- Italic Languages
- Bibliography
- J
- Japanese
- Bibliography
- Javanese
- Javanese Phonology
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Morphology
- Writing System
- Bibliography
- Jegraverriais
- Background
- Phonological Structure
- Vocabulary
- Morphosyntax
- Language Planning
- Literary Tradition
- Bibliography
- Jewish Languages
- Introduction
- Scholarship
- History
- Common Linguistic Features
- The Most Widely Spoken Jewish Language: Yiddish
- Judeo-Spanish
- Judeo-Arabic
- A Contemporary Jewish Language: Jewish English
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Jiwarli
- Introduction
- Language Relationships
- Linguistic Characteristics
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Text Example
- Bibliography
- K
- Kalkutungu
- Bibliography
- Kannada
- History
- Literary and Grammatical Tradition
- Variation
- Structure
- Importance of Language Contact
- Kannada and Linguistic Theory
- Bibliography
- Kanuri
- Bibliography
- Kapampangan
- Phonology
- Overview of Kapampangan Grammar
- Word Order
- Case Marking
- Negation
- Existence and Possession
- Lexical Classes
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Determiners
- Pronouns
- Focus Constructions
- Bibliography
- Karen Languages
- Classification
- Location and Languages Included
- Number of Speakers
- Writing Systems
- Typological Characteristics
- Sample
- Bibliography
- Kashmiri
- Historical Development
- Writing Systems
- Phonological Characteristics
- Morphosyntax
- Sociolinguistics of Kashmiri
- Sample (Srinagar/Standard Kashmiri)
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Kayardild
- Bibliography
- Kaytetye
- Bibliography
- Kazakh
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Keres
- Introduction
- Structural Overview
- Language, Culture, and Society
- Bibliography
- Ket
- Bibliography
- Khasi
- Bibliography
- Khmer
- Khmer (Cambodian)
- Script and Written Records
- Phonology and Phonetics
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Historical Phonology
- Tonal Contrast
- Morphology
- Grammar
- Vocabulary
- Bibliography
- Khoesaan Languages
- Bibliography
- Khotanese
- Bibliography
- Kinyarwanda
- General Background
- Writing System
- Vowels and Consonants
- Tonology
- Role of Tones
- Tone Rules
- Phonology
- Phonological Rules Affecting Vowels
- Phonological Rules Affecting Consonants
- Morphology
- Noun Morphology
- The Use of the Preprefix
- Noun Derivation with the Prefix
- Verb Morphology
- Lack of Adjectives
- Ideophones
- Unclassified Categories
- Syntax
- Object-Subject Reversal and Existential Construction
- Wh-Question In Situ
- Lack of Relative Pronouns
- Serial Verb Construction
- Multiple Direct Objects
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Kirghiz
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonological Features
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Kordofanian Languages
- Bibliography
- Korean
- Phonology
- Basic Structures
- Triple Consonantal Structure
- Consonantal Position
- Intermorphemic Sound Change
- Intermorphemic Sound Movement
- Nonclustering of Initial Consonants
- Triple Vowel System
- Grammar and Syntax
- General Features
- Number
- Syntactical Markers
- Word Order and Word Relation
- Speech Levels and Honorifics
- Sentence Linkage
- Vocabulary
- Lexicon
- Word Creation
- Parallel Vocabulary Sets
- The Written Language
- Bibliography
- Krio
- The Sociohistorical Development of Krio
- Some Grammatical Features of Krio
- Some Lexical Features of Krio
- Compounds
- Reduplication
- Some Phonological Features of Krio
- Consonants
- Vowels and Diphthongs
- Suprasegmentals
- Bibliography
- Kru Languages
- Speakers
- Kru Studies
- Classification
- Structural Features
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Grammar and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Kurdish
- Bibliography
- Kurukh
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Syntax
- Word Classes
- Word Order
- Gender and Number
- Agreement
- Noun Morphology
- Plural Suffixes
- Case Suffixes and Postpositions
- Pronouns
- Numerals
- Verb Morphology
- Female Speech
- Verb Bases
- Finite Verbs
- Nonfinite Verbs
- Agent Noun
- Negative Verb
- Bibliography
- Kwa Languages
- Constitution of the Group
- The Subgroups
- Linguistic Characteristics
- Bibliography
- L
- Lahnda
- Siraiki
- Hindko
- Bibliography
- Lak
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Lakota
- Introduction
- Morphology
- Word Derivation
- Syntax
- Men's and Women's Speech
- Bibliography
- Lao
- Number of Speakers and Genetic Relationship
- Phonology and Grammar
- Sample of Lao with Translation
- Recent History
- Bibliography
- Latin
- History and Affiliations
- Varieties
- Script
- Phonology
- Sound/Spelling Relationship
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Accent and Prosody
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Derivational Morphology
- Syntax
- Word Order
- Complex Sentence Structure
- Bibliography
- Latvian
- Bibliography
- Lithuanian
- The Written Language
- The Writing Tradition in East Prussia
- The Writing Tradition in the Grand Duchy
- The National Standard Language
- Phonology
- Prosodic Features
- The Vowel System
- The Consonant System
- Morphosyntactic Features
- The Noun
- The Verb
- Lexicon
- Bibliography
- Long-Range Comparison: Methodological Disputes
- Introduction
- Hypothesized Long-Range Relationships
- Methods
- Lexical Comparison
- Basic Vocabulary
- Glottochronology
- Multilateral Comparison
- Sound Correspondences
- Grammatical Evidence
- Borrowing
- Semantic Constraints
- Onomatopoeia
- Nursery Forms
- Short Forms and Unmatched Segments
- Chance Similarities
- Sound-Meaning- Isomorphism
- Only Linguistic Evidence
- Erroneous Morphological Analysis
- Spurious Forms
- Some Examples of Long-Range Proposals
- Altaic
- Nostratic
- Amerind
- Bibliography
- Louisiana Creole
- Bibliography
- Luganda
- Location and Genetic Affiliation
- Basic Phonology and Orthography
- Basic Morphology
- Basic Syntax
- Bibliography
- Luo
- Bibliography
- Luxembourgish
- Sample Text
- Bibliography
- M
- Macedonian
- Introduction
- History
- Dialects
- Orthography and Phonology
- Morphology, Syntax, and Lexicon
- Bibliography
- Macro-Jecirc
- Comparative Evidence
- Long-Range Affiliations
- Location
- Characteristics
- Further Reading
- Bibliography
- Madang Languages
- Structural Characteristics of Madang Languages
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Bibliography
- Madurese
- Madurese Phonology
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Morphology
- Writing System
- Bibliography
- Malagasy
- Geographical Distribution, Dialects, and Speakers
- Genetic Relationships
- Writing Systems
- Linguistic Features of Standard Malagasy
- Phonology and Orthography
- Morphosyntactic Characteristics
- Bibliography
- Malay
- Malay Phonology
- Malay Morphology
- Bibliography
- Malayalam
- Language and Speakers
- Etymology and Variant Names
- Development of Literature
- Writing System
- Grammatical Tradition
- Dialect Variation
- Genetic Affiliation
- Characteristic Features
- Phonology
- Morphophonemics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Malayo-Polynesian Languages
- Introduction
- The Integrity of the Malayo-Polynesian Subgroup
- History and Subgrouping
- The Structures of Malayo-Polynesian Languages
- Further References
- Bibliography
- Maltese
- Bibliography
- Malukan Languages
- Bibliography
- Mambila
- Classification
- Phonology
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Tone
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Language Vitality
- Bibliography
- Manambu
- Bibliography
- Mande Languages
- The Distribution of the Mande-Speaking People
- The Reconstructed History of the Mande
- Phase 1: The Drying of the Desert
- Phase 2: The Development of Agriculture
- Phase 3: The Rise of the Sudanic Kingdoms of Ghana and Mali
- Phase 4: Rice and the Development of Forest Agriculture
- Phase 5: The Arrival of the Europeans
- The Linguistic Evidence
- The Classification of Mande Languages
- Current Classification
- Earlier Classifications
- Mande as a Niger-Congo Language
- Linguistic Properties
- Phonology
- Tone
- Morphosyntax
- Noun Classes
- Resources
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Maori
- Bibliography
- Mapudungan
- Bibliography
- Marathi
- History
- Script
- Phonology
- Suprasegmentals
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Word Order
- Passivization
- Subordination
- Notion of Subject
- Bibliography
- Mayan Languages
- Grammatical Characteristics
- Ergativity
- Positionals
- Directional Particles
- Noun Classifiers
- Numeral Classifiers
- Vocabulary
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Michif
- Bibliography
- Misumalpan
- Bibliography
- Mixe-Zoquean Languages
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Distinguishing the Branches
- Bibliography
- Mobilian Jargon
- Bibliography
- Mon
- Bibliography
- Mongolic Languages
- Definition
- Distribution
- Time Depth
- Genetic Status
- Classification
- Typology
- Literary Use
- Political Status
- Demography
- History of Research
- Bibliography
- Mon-Khmer Languages
- Bibliography
- Morphological Typology
- Morphological Types
- Criticism of Morphological Types
- Lists of Clustering Features
- The Fusional Type
- The Agglutinating Type
- The Isolating Type
- Comparison
- Contemporary Morphological Typology
- Bibliography
- Morrobalama
- Bibliography
- Munda Languages
- Bibliography
- Muskogean Languages
- Introduction
- Classification
- Phonological Characteristics
- Morphosyntactic Characteristics
- Word Order Properties
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- N
- Na-Dene Languages
- Language Classification and Distribution
- Typological Features
- Bibliography
- Nahuatl
- Bibliography
- Native American Languages
- The Size of the Problem
- Scope of this Article
- The Identification of Linguistic Stocks
- The Stocks of North and Middle America
- Eskimo-Aleut
- Na-Dene
- Algonquian
- Iroquoian
- Siouan and Caddoan
- Caddoan
- Muskogean
- Keresan
- Salish or Salishan
- Wakashan
- Penutian
- Uto-Aztecan and Kiowa-Tanoan
- Hokan
- Isolates of southern Texas and Mexico
- North American Isolates Resisting Affiliation
- Mayan and Mixe-Zoquean
- Totonacan
- Oto-Manguean
- Tarascan
- Remaining Isolates
- The Stocks of South America
- Lowland South America
- The Southern 'Cone' Area
- The Andean, or Highland Area
- Bibliography
- Native Languages of North America, Variation in
- Regional Dialects and Mutual Intelligibility
- Assessing Variation
- Sound and Lexicon
- Grammar
- Intergenerational Variation and New Language
- Personal Indicators in Speech
- Folk Characters and Abnormalities
- Caretaker Language and Baby Talk
- Gender
- Phonological Indicators
- Vocabulary and Morphology
- The Meanings of Gendered Forms
- Stylistic Variation
- The Content of Style
- Folktales as Verse
- Bibliography
- Navajo
- Bibliography
- Nenets
- Bibliography
- Nepali
- Bibliography
- Ngan'gi
- Introduction
- Classification
- Areal Features
- Pronominal Indexing
- Verbal Classification
- Free Pronouns
- Nominal Classification
- Phonology
- Bibliography
- Niger-Congo Languages
- Early Classification
- Accepted Classification
- The Niger-Congo Subfamilies
- Mande
- Kordofanian
- Atlantic
- Ijoid
- Kru
- Gur
- Dogon
- Adamawa-Ubangi
- Kwa
- Benue-Congo
- Bibliography
- Nilo-Saharan Languages
- More Recent Comparative Work
- The Areal Dimension
- Bibliography
- Niuean
- Bibliography
- Nivkh
- Bibliography
- Norse and Icelandic
- Terminology and Historical Relations
- From Old Norse to Modern Icelandic
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Vocabulary
- Archaism and Innovation in Icelandic
- Bibliography
- North Philippine Languages
- Bibliography
- Norwegian
- Sociohistorical Setting
- Morphology and Phonology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Nostratic Hypothesis
- Bibliography
- Nuristani Languages
- Bibliography
- Nuuchahnulth
- Bibliography
- Nyanja
- History and Politics
- Regional Politics and Language Issues
- The Ascendancy of Chinyanja
- On Reverting to the Name of Chinyanja
- Linguistic Aspects of Chinyanja
- Classification of Nouns
- Bibliography
- O
- Occitan
- Status
- Structure
- Diversity
- History
- Perspectives
- Bibliography
- Old Church Slavonic
- Bibliography
- Omaha-Ponca
- Speakers and Linguistic Resources
- Sounds and Spelling
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Usage: Gendered Speech and Dialects
- Bibliography
- Omotic Languages
- Bibliography
- Oneida
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology and the Lexicon
- Syntax
- Scholarship
- Community Work
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Oromo
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Bibliography
- Ossetic
- Ethnography, History, and Literature
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Accent
- Loan Word Phonology
- Nouns
- Pronouns
- Numerals
- Verbs
- Noun and Postposition Phrases
- Simple Verbal Sentences
- Copular Sentences
- Syntax of Embedding
- Bibliography
- Oto-Mangean Languages
- Structural Characteristics of Oto-Mangean Languages
- Phonological Traits
- Consonants
- Vowels and Syllabic Nuclei
- Syllable Onsets
- Grammatical Traits of Oto-Manguean Languages
- Alignment
- Possession Classes of Nouns
- Endocentric Noun Classes
- Exocentric Noun Classes in Oaxacan Languages
- Precolumbian Language Contact with Non-Oto-Manguean Languages
- Yokel Anxiety
- The Mayanization of Oto-Pamean
- Viability
- Documentation
- Bibliography
- P
- Pahlavi
- Bibliography
- Palenquero
- Bibliography
- Pamacrli
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Panoan Languages
- History and Culture
- Classification
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon and Ethnolinguistics
- Bibliography
- Papiamentu
- Origins
- Orthography
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Papuan Languages
- Introduction
- A Short History of Research on Papuan Languages
- Recent Work on the Classification of Papuan Languages
- The Trans New Guinea Family
- Families Confined to North New Guinea
- Island Melanesia
- Structural Characteristics of Papuan Languages
- Explaining the Diversity and Distribution of the Papuan Languages
- Bibliography
- Pashto
- Origin and History
- Dialectology
- Pashto Script and Orthography
- Basic Phonology
- Basic Morphology
- Nouns
- Pronouns
- Pashto Verbs
- Basic Syntax and Typology
- Order of Terms
- SOV
- Ergativity
- Antiimpersonal Verbs
- Differential Object Marking
- The Landey
- Bibliography
- Persian, Modern
- Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Bibliography
- Persian, Old
- Bibliography
- Phoenician
- Bibliography
- Pictish
- Bibliography
- Pidgins and Creoles
- Definitions
- Classifying Pidgins and Creoles
- Relationships between Pidgins and Creoles
- Origins
- Substrate
- Superstrate
- Diffusion
- Universals
- Directions for Future Research
- Bibliography
- Pidgins and Creoles, Variation in
- Introduction: Creole Myths
- Variation in Pidgins
- Variation in Creoles
- The Creole Continuum
- Lexical Semantics
- Education and Lectal Level (Ghanaian Pidgin)
- Lectal Variation (Belizean Creole)
- Basilect (Nansi Story)
- Acrolect
- Mesolect (The Village Midwife)
- Decreolization
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara
- Sociocultural and Historical Aspects
- Structure
- Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Nominal Morphology
- Verbs
- Complex Sentences
- Bibliography
- Polish
- Orthography
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon
- History
- Dialectology
- Bibliography
- Pomoan Languages
- Names
- Internal Relations
- State of Descriptive Knowledge
- Basic Characteristics of the Pomoan Languages
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Historical Relationships
- Bibliography
- Portuguese
- History
- Characteristics of Portuguese
- Syntactic Characteristics
- Morphological Characteristics
- The Verb
- The Adjective
- Phonological Characteristics
- Monophthongs
- Diphthongs
- Consonants
- Varieties of Portuguese
- Bibliography
- Punjabi
- Introduction
- History and Literature
- Varieties and Dialects
- Writing Systems
- Phonology
- Stress
- Morphology
- Verbs
- Syntax
- Language Contact
- Bibliography
- Q
- Quechua
- Bibliography
- R
- Rhaeto Romance
- Bibliography
- Riau Indonesian
- Bibliography
- Romance Languages
- Reconstruction
- Texts
- Divergence
- Bibliography
- Romani
- Definitions
- History
- The sound system
- Morphology
- Nominal forms
- Verbs
- Syntax
- Dialect diversity
- Bibliography
- Romanian
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Russenorsk
- Bibliography
- Russian
- The Written Language
- Diglossia
- 18th Century
- Church Slavonic Features
- Phonetics
- Grammar
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Lexis
- Influence of Russian
- Bibliography
- Ryukyuan
- Bibliography
- S
- Saami
- Bibliography
- Salishan Languages
- Bibliography
- Samar-Leyte
- Bibliography
- Sango
- Bibliography
- Sanskrit
- Origin and History
- Characteristics
- Sample Sentence
- Role and Influence in Indian Culture
- Sanskrit and the West
- Bibliography
- Santali
- Bibliography
- Scots
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Scots Gaelic
- Origins and Early History
- Linguistic Characteristics of Scottish Gaelic and its Dialects
- History: Medieval to Modern
- Gaelic in Present-Day Society: Cultural and Administrative Infrastructure
- Bibliography
- Semitic Languages
- Introduction
- East and West Semitic
- East Semitic
- Akkadian
- Eblaite
- West Semitic
- Ethiopian
- Modern South Arabian
- Central Semitic
- Old South Arabian
- North Arabian
- Northwest Semitic
- Bibliography
- Serbian-Croatian-Bosnian Linguistic Complex
- Bosnian
- Croatian
- Serbian
- Serbian-Croatian-Bosnian Linguistic Complex
- Serbo-Croat
- Bibliography
- Shona
- Bibliography
- Sign Languages
- How Do Sign Languages 'Happen'?
- The Linguistic Structure of Sign Language
- The Phonology of Sign Language
- Morphology
- Syntax
- A Grammar of the Face
- Acquisition of Sign Language
- Sign Language and the Brain
- Language Modality, Language Age, and the Dinner Conversation Paradox
- Modality Effects
- Iconicity in Sign Language
- Simultaneity in Sign Languages
- The Role of Language Age
- Bibliography
- Sign Language: Morphology
- Bibliography
- Sign Languages of the World
- The Current State of Knowledge
- Sociocultural and Sociolinguistic Variables
- Relationships between Sign Languages
- Grammatical Similarities and Differences across Sign Languages
- Future Developments
- Bibliography
- Sindhi
- Language History
- Related Languages and Dialects
- Linguistic Features
- Sound System
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Linguistic Works on Sindhi
- Bibliography
- Sinhala
- General
- Varieties
- Phonology
- Orthography
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Sino-Tibetan Languages
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Siouan Languages
- Subgroups, Locations, and Speaker Statistics
- External Relationships
- Grammatical and Phonological Features
- Future Scholarship
- Bibliography
- Skou Languages
- Bibliography
- Slavic Languages
- Phonological History
- Rising Sonority
- Syllabic synharmony
- Vowel Distinctions
- Prosody
- Morphological history
- Declension
- Conjugation
- Bibliography
- Slovak
- Orthography
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon
- Dialectology
- History
- Bibliography
- Slovene
- Introduction
- Overview
- Historical Development and Emergence of Literary Language
- Political Issues and Language Maintenance
- Phonology
- Writing System
- Vowel System
- Word Prosody
- Consonant System
- Morphology
- Noun and Adjective Inflection
- Verb Inflection
- Syntax
- Word Order
- Clitics
- Lexicon
- Bibliography
- Sogdian
- Bibliography
- Somali
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Verbs
- Nouns
- Adjectives
- Syntax
- Sentence Structure
- Word Order
- Questions
- Complex Sentences
- Bibliography
- Songhay Languages
- Bibliography
- Sorbian
- Bibliography
- South Asia as a Linguistic Area
- Introduction
- Areal Features
- Retroflex Consonants
- OV Word Order
- Converbs
- Compound Verbs
- Quotatives
- Morphological Causatives
- Dative Subjects
- Other Features
- History of the Field
- Historical Evidence
- Subareas
- Bibliography
- South Philippine Languages
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Morphosyntax of Basic Sentence Types
- Maguindanaon
- Obo Manobo
- Tboli
- Southern Sama
- Syntactic Processes
- Bibliography
- Southeast Asia as a Linguistic Area
- Mainland Southeast Asia - the Area, Its Languages and Language Families, Its History
- General Properties of the Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia - the Relevance of Pragmatics
- Indeterminateness and the Role of Pragmatics
- Syllabic Morphology
- Versatility
- Some Individual Structural Properties of the Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia
- Word Order
- Classifiers
- Directional Verbs, Coverbs and TAM Markers, and Syntactic Patterns
- The Verb 'Come to Have'
- Conclusion - Factors Leading to a Zone of Convergence
- Bibliography
- Southern Bantu Languages
- Introduction
- Classification
- Structural Features
- Bibliography
- Spanish
- History
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Vocabulary
- The Future
- Bibliography
- Sumerian
- Phonology
- Word Classes
- Morphology
- Nouns and Phrases
- Verbs and Clauses
- Resources
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Swahili
- Introduction
- Language History
- Standard Swahili
- Structure
- Noun Classes
- Agreement
- Verbal Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Swedish
- Bibliography
- Syriac
- Bibliography
- T
- Tagalog
- What Tagalog Is Like
- Influences on Tagalog and Tagalog's Influence on Other Languages
- Bibliography
- Tahitian
- Bibliography
- Tai Languages
- Geographical Location and Number of Speakers
- Wider Affiliations
- History
- Typological Characteristics
- Bibliography
- Tajik Persian
- History
- Phonology and Orthography
- Morphology and Noun Phrase Syntax
- The Lexicon
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Tamambo
- Introduction
- Grammatical Overview
- Phonology
- Orthography
- Examples of Particular Grammatical Characteristics
- Productive Derivations from Affixation, Reduplication, and Compounding
- Valency Changing Affixes
- Serial Verb Constructions for a Variety of Functions
- Possessive Constructions
- Hierarchy of Individuation: Kin Terms/Proper Names rarr Animate rarr Inanimate
- Bibliography
- Tamil
- Bibliography
- Tanoan
- Subgroups, Locations, and Speakers
- History and External Relationships
- Phonological and Grammatical Features
- Future Scholarship
- Bibliography
- Tariana
- Bibliography
- Tatar
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Telugu
- Introduction
- Sounds
- Pronouns and Pronominal Categories
- Oblique Forms
- Noun
- Number
- Case
- Numerals
- Adjectives and Adverbs
- Verb
- Syntax
- Vocabulary
- Bibliography
- Thai
- Historical Background
- Phonology
- Syntax
- Sociolinguistics
- Future Work
- Bibliography
- Tibetan
- Geography, Affiliation, and History
- Grammar
- Words
- Noun Phrases
- Verb Phrases
- Clauses
- Phonology
- Honorifics
- Sample Sentence
- Recent History
- Bibliography
- Tigrinya
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Tiwi
- Introduction
- Traditional Tiwi
- New Tiwi
- Modern Tiwi
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Tocharian
- Bibliography
- Toda
- Phonology
- Sentences
- Pronouns and Nouns
- Numerals and Modifiers
- Oblique Forms
- Verbs
- Vocabulary
- Bibliography
- Tohono O'odham
- Bibliography
- Tok Pisin
- Bibliography
- Torricelli Languages
- Bibliography
- Totonacan Languages
- Totonacan Language Family
- Totonacan Phonology
- Totonacan Morphology
- Nominals
- Numerals
- Body Part Prefixes
- Verbal Inflection
- Verbal Derivation
- Totonacan Syntax
- Bibliography
- Trans New Guinea Languages
- The Trans New Guinea Family
- History of the Trans New Guinea Hypothesis
- Subgroups of Trans New Guinea
- Where and When was Proto TNG Spoken?
- Structural Characteristics of TNG Languages
- Phonology
- Grammar and Semantics
- Bibliography
- Tsotsi Taal
- Bibliography
- Tucanoan Languages
- Overview
- Classification
- Location
- Interrelationship
- Language Features
- Phonological Characterestics
- Vowels
- Vowel Sequences
- Consonants
- Syllable Patterns
- Suprasegmentals
- Nasalization and Nasal Assimilation
- Accent and Tone
- Grammatical Characteristics
- Sentence
- Word Order
- Case Markers
- Nouns
- Classifiers
- Noun Modifiers
- Personal Pronouns
- Demonstrative Adjectives
- Verbs
- Auxiliary Verbs
- Compound Verb Roots
- Evidentiality
- Future
- Bibliography
- Tungusic Languages
- Location and Composition of the Tungusic Language Family: Sociolinguistic Data
- Internal Classification
- Wider Genetic Affiliation
- Structure
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Bibliography
- Tupian Languages
- General Properties of Tupian Languages
- Bibliography
- Turkic Languages
- Development and Classification
- Written Varieties
- Contacts
- Linguistic Features
- Bibliography
- Turkish
- Phonology
- Phonemes
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Stress
- Phonological Rules
- Vowel Harmony
- Other Phonological Rules
- Morphology
- The Noun Paradigm
- The Verb Paradigm
- Auxiliary Suffixes
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Turkmen
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- U
- Ugaritic
- Bibliography
- Ukrainian
- Bibliography
- United States of America: Language Situation
- American English
- Regional and Social Varieties
- African-American English
- The Debate over Bilingualism
- Spanish in the United States
- Indigenous Languages
- Native American Languages
- American Creoles
- American Sign Language
- Minority Immigrant Languages
- Bibliography
- Uralic Languages
- Distribution
- Phonology
- Vowel Harmony
- Consonant Gradation
- Vocalism
- Consonantism
- Word Stress
- Morphology
- Case Suffixes
- Plural Markers
- Gender and Definiteness
- Verbs
- Syntax
- Basic Word Order
- Main Verb Phrases
- Subordinate Sentences
- Objects
- Uralic Languages as a Family
- Bibliography
- Relevant Websites
- Urdu
- Origin and Development
- Urdu Language: Identity and Conflict
- Linguistic Description
- Codification and Standardization
- Urdu Literature
- Bibliography
- Uto-Aztecan Languages
- Bibliography
- Uyghur
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Uzbek
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- V
- Vietnamese
- Historical Origins
- Regional Varieties
- Phonological Forms
- Word Category and Constructions
- Phrases and Sentences
- Sources and Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Vureumls
- Bibliography
- W
- Wa
- Bibliography
- Wakashan
- Languages
- Proto-Wakashan
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Further Reading
- Bibliography
- Wambaya
- Introduction
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Bibliography
- Warlpiri
- Warlpiri Grammar
- Phonology
- The Word
- Clauses
- Verbs
- Nominals
- Auxiliary Complex
- Meaning, Context, and Registers
- Bibliography
- Welsh
- Demographic Features
- Periods of Welsh
- Linguistic Features
- Alphabet
- Phonemic Inventory
- Consonant Mutation
- Vocabulary
- Syntax
- Stylistic Variation
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- West Greenlandic
- The Language and Its Dialects
- Historiography of Descriptive Work
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology/Syntax
- Lexicon
- Semantics/Discourse/Sociolinguistics
- State of the Language Today
- Bibliography
- West Papuan Languages
- Introduction
- Typological features
- Verbal Complex
- Nominal Complex
- Pronominal systems
- Tone
- Papuan and Austronesian Contact
- Bibliography
- Wolaitta
- Introduction
- The Sound System
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Syllable Structure
- Tone-Accent
- Nouns
- Plural Marking
- Case, Gender, and Definiteness
- Nominal Derivation
- Adjectives and Adverbs
- Pronouns
- Verbs
- Subject Agreement, Aspect, Negation, and Modality
- Interrogatives
- Imperative and Optative Moods
- Clauses
- Simple Declarative Clauses
- Complex Clauses
- Bibliography
- Wolof
- Introduction
- Genetic Affiliation
- Phonetics and Phonology
- Morphology and Syntax
- Urban Wolof
- Bibliography
- X
- Xhosa
- Introduction
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- Noun Classes
- Nominal Suffixes
- Agreement Morphology with Nominal Modifiers
- Derived Nouns
- Compound Nouns
- Verbs, Verb Phrases, and Clauses
- Transitivity and Verbal Derivation
- Causative Suffix
- Detransitivising Verbal Affixes
- Unaccusative Verbal Suffixes: Passive and Neuter-Passive
- Verbal Inflection
- Subject and Object Agreement Prefixes
- Aspect Morphemes
- Tense Inflection
- Present Tense
- Future Tense
- Perfect Past Tense
- Remote Past Tense
- Compound Past Tenses
- Recent Compound Past Tense
- Remote Compound Past Tense
- Negative Inflection
- Mood Inflection
- Indicative Mood
- Participial (Situative) Mood
- Relative Mood
- Subjunctive Mood
- Consecutive Mood
- Imperative Mood
- Hortative Mood
- Temporal Mood
- Infinitive Mood
- Ideophones
- Intransitive Ideophones
- Transitive Ideophones
- Bibliography
- Y
- Yakut
- Location and Speakers
- Origin and History
- Related Languages and Language Contacts
- The Written Language
- Distinctive Features
- Phonology
- Grammar
- Lexicon
- Dialects
- Bibliography
- Yanito
- Bibliography
- Yiddish
- Orthography
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Lexicon
- History
- Dialectology
- Bibliography
- Yoruba
- Location and Number of Speakers
- Genetic Relationship and History
- Earliest Written Record
- Individual Characteristics
- Syntactic Characteristics
- Noun Classes, Gender System, and Number
- Possessive Noun-Noun Constructions
- Past and Present Actions
- Verbal Constructions
- Morphological Characteristics
- Phonetic/Phonological Characteristics
- Vowel Co-occurrence Restrictions and Vowel Elision
- The Assimilated Low Tone
- Restriction on the Occurrence of the High Tone
- Tones of Pronouns
- Other Characteristics
- Other Points of Relevance
- Bibliography
- Yukaghir
- Bibliography
- Z
- Zapotecan
- Introduction
- Phonological Characteristics
- Morphological Characteristics
- Syntactic Characteristics
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Zulu
- Introduction
- Morphology
- Phonology
- Syntax
- Historical and Comparative Linguistics
- Sociolinguistics
- Current Research Directions
- Bibliography
- Index
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