Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 4
Description
This fourth volume in the Petroleum Refining set, this book continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student.
This book provides the design of heat exchanger equipment, crude oil fouling in pre-heat train exchangers, crude oil fouling models, fouling mitigation and monitoring, prevention and control of liquid and gas side fouling, using the Excel spreadsheet and UniSim design software for the design of shell and tube heat exchangers, double pipe heat exchangers, air-cooled exchangers, heat loss tracing for process piping, pinch analysis for hot and cold utility targets and process safety incidents involving these equipment items and pertinent industrial case studies.
Use of UniSim Design (UniSim STE) software is illustrated in further elucidation of the design of shell and tube heat exchangers, condensers, and UniSim ExchangerNet R470 for the design of heat exchanger networks using pinch analysis. This is important for determining minimum cold and hot utility requirements, composite curves of hot and cold streams, the grand composite curve, the heat exchanger network, and the relationship between operating cost index target and the capital cost index target against ¿Tmin.
Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world's foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
This groundbreaking new volume:
- Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications
- Provides improved design manuals to methods and proven fundamentals of process design with related data and charts
- Covers a complete range of basic day-to-day petroleum refining operations topics with new materials on significant industry changes
- Extensive Excel spreadsheets for the design of process vessels for mechanical separation of two-phase and three-phase fluids, double-pipe heat exchanger, air-cooled exchanger, pinch analysis for hot and cold utility targets.
- Provides UniSim ®-based case studies for enabling simulation of key processes outlined in the book
- Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications
- Has a related website that includes computer applications along with spreadsheets and concise applied process design flow charts and process data sheets
- Provides various case studies of process safety incidents in refineries and means of mitigating these from investigations by the US Chemical Safety Board
- Includes a vast Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology
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Person
Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 61. He was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the U.S.
Content
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxii
21 Heat Transfer 1
21.1 Introduction 1
21.1.1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology 2
21.2 Details of Exchange Equipment 19
Assembly and Arrangement 19
Construction Codes 19
Thermal Rating Standards 19
Details of Stationary Heads 19
Exchanger Shell Types 20
21.3 Factors Affecting Shell Selection 24
21.3.1 Details of Rear End Heads 25
21.4 Common Combinations of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 26
AES 26
BEM 26
AEP 27
CFU 28
AKT 28
AJW 28
Tubes 29
21.5 Bending of Tubing 56
Baffles 56
Tube Side Baffles (TEMA uses Pass Partition Plates) 56
21.6 Shell-Side Baffles and Tube Supports 57
Tie Rods 67
Tubesheets 67
Tube Joints in Tubesheets 69
Seal Strips 72
Example 21.1 Determine Outside Heat Transfer Area of Heat Exchanger Bundle 73
Tubesheets Layouts 73
21.7 Tube Counts in Shells 73
Applications of Tube Pitch Arrangements 93
21.8 Exchanger Surface Area 93
Number of Tubes 93
Exact Distance Between Faces of Tubesheets 94
Net Effective Tube Length 94
Exact Baffle Spacing 94
Impingement Baffle Location 94
Effective Tube Surface 94
Effective Tube Length for U-Tube Heat Exchangers 107
21.9 Tube Vibration 107
21.9.1 Vibration Mechanisms 109
21.9.2 Treatment of Vibration Problems 110
21.9.3 Corrective Measures 110
Example 21.2 Use of U-Tube Area Chart 111
Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads 112
21.10 Types of Heat Exchange Operations 112
21.10.1 Thermal Design 112
21.10.2 Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer 116
Example 21.3 One Shell Pass, Two Tubes Passes Parallel-Counterflow Exchanger Cross, After Murty 117
21.10.3 Mean Temperature Difference or Log Mean Temperature Difference 120
21.10.4 Log Mean Temperature Difference Correction Factor, F 123
21.10.5 Correction for Multipass Flow Through Heat Exchangers 133
Example 21.4 Performance Examination for Exit Temperature of Fluids 134
Example 21.5 Calculation of Weighted MTD 136
Example 21.6 Calculation of LMTD and Correction 137
Example 21.7 Calculate the LMTD 140
Solution 140
Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation-Caloric Temperature 142
Tube Wall Temperature 142
Example 21.8 Heating of Glycerin in a Multipass Heat Exchanger 145
Solution 145
21.11 The Effectiveness-NTU Method 148
Example 21.9 Heating Water in a Counter Current Flow Heat Exchanger 148
Solution 152
Example 21.10 LMTD and e-NTU Methods 154
Solution 154
Example 21.11 156
Solution 156
21.12 Pressure Drop, ¿p 158
21.12.1 Frictional Pressure Drop 164
21.12.2 Factors Affecting Pressure Drop (¿p) 168
Tube-Side Pressure Drop, ¿pf 169
Shell-Side Pressure Drop ¿pf 170
Shell Nozzle Pressure Drop (¿p noz) 172
Total Shell-Side Pressure Drop, ¿p total 172
21.13 Heat Balance 173
Heat Load or Duty 173
Example 21.12 Heat Duty of a Condenser with Liquid Subcooling 174
21.14 Transfer Area 174
Over Surface and Over Design 174
21.15 Fouling of Tube Surface 175
21.15.1 Crude Oil Fouling In Pre-Heat Train Exchangers 199
Crude Type 199
Crude Blending 199
Crude Oil Fouling Models 202
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers' Association (TEMA) and Model Approach for Fouling Resistance, Rf of Crude Oil Pre-Heat Trains 208
Fouling Mitigation and Monitoring 209
HIS smartPM Software 213
Effect of Fouling on Exchanger Heat Transfer Performance 216
Example 21.13 216
Solution 216
Example 21.14 217
Solution 217
Prevention and Control of Liquid-Side Fouling 218
Prevention and Control of Gas-Side Fouling 219
UnSim Design HEX Network Digital Twin Model 219
Selecting Tube Pass Arrangement 220
Super Clean System Technology 221
21.16 Exchanger Design 223
21.16.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes 224
Example 21.15 Calculation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient from Individual Components 235
Approximate Values for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 235
Simplified Equations 247
Film Coefficients With Fluids Outside Tubes Forced Convection 253
Viscosity Correction Factor (µ/µw)0.14
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Water, hi 257
Shell-Side Equivalent Tube Diameter 258
Shell-Side Velocities 265
Design and Rating of Heat Exchangers 265
Rating of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 266
Design of a Heat Exchanger 270
Design Procedure for Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Exchanger Design 272
Design Programs for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 273
Example 21.16 Convection Heat Transfer Exchanger Design 274
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design Procedure (S.I. units) 286
Tubes 288
Tube Side Pass Partition Plate 288
Calculations of Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient 288
Example 21.17 Design of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (S.I. units) Kern's Model 291
Solution 292
Modified Design 298
Shell-Side Pressure Drop, ¿ps 298
Pressure Drop for Plain Tube Exchangers 300
Tube Size 300
Tube-Side Condensation Pressure Drop 304
Shell-Side 305
Unbaffled Shells 305
Segmental Baffles in Shell 306
Alternate: Segmental Baffles Pressure Drop 307
A Case Study Using UniSim® Shell-Tube Exchanger (STE) Modeler 310
Solution 311
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: Single Phase 329
Effect of Manufacturing Clearances on the Shell-Side Flow 329
Bell-Delaware Method 331
Ideal Shell-Side Film Heat Transfer Coefficient 332
Shell-Side Film Heat Transfer Coefficient Correction Factors 333
Baffle Cut and Spacing, Jc 333
Baffle leakage Effects, JL 335
Bundle and Partition Bypass Effects, Jb 337
Variations in Baffle Spacing, Js 338
Temperature Gradient for Laminar Flow Regime, Jr 338
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U 338
Shell-Side Pressure (¿p) 339
Tube Pattern 341
Accuracy of Correlations Between Kern's Method and the Bell-Delaware's Method 341
Specification Process Data Sheet, Design, and Construction of Heat Exchangers 341
Rapid Design Algorithms for Shell and Tube and Compact Heat Exchangers: Polley et al. [173] 344
Fluids in the Annulus of Tube-in-Pipe or Double Pipe Heat Exchanger, Forced Convection 347
Finned Tube Exchangers 348
Low Finned Tubes, 16 and 19 Fins/In. 348
Finned Surface Heat Transfer 348
Economics of Finned Tubes 353
Tubing Dimensions 353
Design for Heat Transfer Coefficients by Forced Convection Using Radial Low-Fin Tubes in Heat Exchanger Bundles 355
Pressure Drop in Exchanger Shells Using Bundles of Low Fin Tubes 357
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 358
Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensation With Gas Cooling of Condensables, Fluid-Fluid Convection Heat Exchange 358
Vertical Condensation on Low Fin Tubes 358
Nucleate Boiling Outside Horizontal or Vertical Tubes 358
Design Procedure for Boiling, Using Experimental Data 360
Double Pipe Finned Tube Heat Exchangers 362
Finned Side-Heat Transfer 364
Tube Wall Resistance 370
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 370
Fouling Factor 371
Finned Side Pressure Drop 371
Design Equations for The Rating of A Double Pipe Heat Exchanger 372
Inner Pipe 374
Annulus 375
Vapor Service 376
Shell-Side Bare Tube 376
Shell-Side (Finned Tube) 377
Tube Side Pressure Drop, ¿pt 378
Annulus 378
Calculation of the Pressure Drop 379
Effect of Pressure Drop (¿p) on the Original Design 380
Nomenclature 381
Example 21.19 382
Solution 383
Heat Balance 383
Pressure Drop Calculations 389
Tube-Side ¿p 390
Shell-Side ¿p 390
Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers 393
Design Charts for Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers 397
Selection 400
Advantages 400
Disadvantages 400
Example 21.20 401
Solution 401
Pressure Drop Calculations 408
Cooling Water Side Pressure Drop 410
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 412
Induced Draft 412
Forced Draft 413
General Application 422
Advantages-Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 422
Disadvantages 423
Bid Evaluation 424
Design Consideration (Continuous Service) 428
Mean Temperature Difference 433
Design Procedure for Approximation 435
Tube Side Fluid Temperature Control 440
Rating Method for Air Cooler Exchangers 441
The Equations 441
The Air Side Pressure Drop, ¿pa (in. H 2 O) 447
Example 21.26 448
Solution 448
Operations of Air Cooled Heat Exchangers 448
Monitoring of Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 450
Boiling and Vaporization 450
Boiling 450
Vaporization 455
Vaporization During Flow 455
Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Natural Circulation 470
Pool and Nucleate Boiling-General Correlation for Heat Flux and Critical Temperature Difference 472
Example 21.27 474
Solution 475
Reboiler Heat Balance 480
Example 21.28 Reboiler Heat Duty after Kern 480
Solution 481
Kettle Horizontal Reboilers 482
Maximum Bundle Heat Flux 483
Nucleate or Alternate Designs Procedure 489
Kettle Reboiler-Horizontal Shells 490
Horizontal Kettle Reboiler Disengaging Space 491
Kettle Horizontal Reboilers, Alternate Design 491
Boiling: Nucleate Natural Circulation (Thermosyphon) Inside Vertical Tubes or Outside Horizontal Tubes 493
Gilmour Method Modified 493
Suggested Procedure for Vaporization with Sensible Heat Transfer 496
Procedure for Horizontal Natural Circulation Thermosyphon Reboiler 499
Kern Method 499
Vaporization Inside Vertical Tubes; Natural Thermosyphon Action 499
Fair's Method 500
Process Requirements 505
Preliminary Design 506
Circulation Rate 506
Heat Transfer-Stepwise Method 507
Circulation Rate 510
Heat Transfer: Simplified Method 516
Design Comments 516
Example 21.29 C3 Splitter Reboiler 518
Solution 519
Preliminary Design 519
Circulation Rate 519
Heat Transfer Rate-Stepwise Method 520
Heat Transfer Rate-Simplified Method 522
Example 21.30 Cyclohexane Column Reboiler 522
Solution 523
Preliminary Design 523
Circulation Rate 523
Heat Transfer Rate-Simplified Method 524
Kern's Method Stepwise 525
Design Considerations 527
Other Design Methods 530
Example 21.31 Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler, Kern's Method 530
Solution 531
Calculation of Tube Side Film Coefficient 538
Simplified Hajek Method-Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler 539
General Guides for Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers Design 540
Example 21.32 Hajek's Method-Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler 542
Physical Data Required 542
Variables to be Determined 542
Determine Overall Coefficient at Maximum Flux 543
Determine Overall ¿T at Maximum Flux 543
Maximum Flat 545
Flux at Operating Levels Below Maximum 545
Fouled ¿T at Maximum Flux 547
Fouled ¿T, To Maintain Plus for 10°F Clean ¿T 548
Analysis of Data in Figure 21.225 548
Surface Area Required 548
Vapor Nozzle Diameter 549
Liquid Inlet Nozzle Diameter 549
Design Notes 549
Reboiling Piping 550
Film Boiling 550
Vertical Tubes, Boiling Outside, Submerged 550
Horizontal Tubes: Boiling Outside, Submerged 550
Common Reboiler Problems 554
Heat Exchanger Design with Computers 555
Functionality 557
Physical Properties 558
UniSim Heat Exchanger Model Formulations 559
Case Study 1: Kettle Reboiler Simulation Using UniSim STE 559
Nozzle Data 564
Process Data 564
Case Study 2: Thermosyphon Reboiler Simulation Using UniSim STE 572
Process Data (SI Units) 574
Solution 580
Troubleshooting of Shell and Tube Exchanger 580
Maintenance of Heat Exchangers 580
Disassembly for Inspection or Cleaning 580
Locating Tube Leaks 580
Hydrocarbon Leaks 596
Pass Partition Failure 596
Water Hammer 596
General Symptoms in Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 598
Case Studies of Heat Exchanger Explosion Hazard Incidents 599
A Case Study (Courtesy of U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board) 599
TESORO ANACORTES REFINERY, ANACORTES, WASHINGTON 599
Process Conditions of the B and E Heat Exchangers 602
US Chemical Safety Board (CBS) Findings 602
Recommendations 606
Maintenance Procedures 607
References 612
22 Energy Management and Pinch Technology 621
22.1 Introduction 621
22.2 Waste Heat Recovery 624
22.2.1 Steam Distribution 625
22.2.2 Design for Energy Efficiency 626
22.2.3 Energy Management Opportunities 628
22.3 Process Integration and Heat Exchanger Networks 631
22.3.1 Application of Process Integration 638
22.4 Pinch Technology 639
22.4.1 Heat Exchanger Network Design 640
22.4.2 Energy and Capital Targeting and Optimization 643
22.4.3 Optimization Variables 643
22.4.4 Optimization of the Use of Utilities (Utility Placement) 645
22.4.5 Heat Exchanger Network Revamp 645
22.5 Energy Targets 649
22.5.1 Heat Recovery for Multiple Systems 650
Example 22.1: Setting Energy Targets and Heat Exchanger Network 650
Solution 650
22.6 The Heat Recovery Pinch and Its Significance 655
22.7 The Significance of the Pinch 656
22.8 A Targeting Procedure: The Problem Table Algorithm 658
22.9 The Grand Composite Curve 661
22.9.1 Placing Utilities Using the Grand Composite Curve 663
22.10 Stream Matching at the Pinch 665
22.10.1 The Pinch Design Approach to Inventing a Network 666
22.11 Heat Exchanger Network Design 666
Example 22.2 673
Solution 673
22.11.1 Stream Splitting 678
Example 22.3 (Source: Seider et al., Product and Process Design Principles-Synthesis, Analysis, and Evaluation 3rd Ed. Wiley 2009 [26]) 679
Solution 680
Example 22.4 [Source: Manufacture of cellulose acetate fiber by Robins Smith (Chemical Process Design and Integration, John Wiley 2007 [34])] 681
Solution 687
22.12 Heat Exchanger Area Targets 693
Example 22.5 (Source: R. Smith, Chemical Process Design, Mc Graw-Hill, 1995 [20]) 695
Solution 696
Example 22.6 703
Solution 703
22.13 HEN Simplification 703
Example 22.7: Test Case 3, TC3 Linnhoff and Hindmarch 703
Solution 704
22.13.1 Heat Load Paths 709
22.14 Number of Shell Target 710
22.14.1 Implications for HEN Design 711
22.15 Capital Cost Targets 712
22.16 Energy Targeting 714
22.16.1 Supertargeting or ¿Tmin Optimization 714
Example 22.8: Cost Targeting 714
Solution 715
Example 22.9: HEN for Maximum Energy Recovery (Warren D. Seider et al. [26]) 722
Solution 722
22.17 Targeting and Design for Constrained Matches 725
22.18 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps for Optimum Integration 726
22.18.1 Appropriate Integration of Heat Engines 729
22.18.2 Appropriate Integration of Heat Pumps 731
22.18.3 Opportunities for Placement of Heat Pumps 731
22.18.4 Appropriate Placement of Compression and Expansion in Heat Recovery Systems 732
22.19 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer in Process Integration 732
22.20 Total Site Analysis 732
22.21 Applications of Process Integration 736
22.22 Sitewide Integration 741
22.23 Flue Gas Emissions 741
22.24 Pitfalls in Process Integration 744
Glossary of Terms 789
Summary and Heuristics 795
Nomenclature 796
References 796
Bibliography 800
Appendix D 801
Appendix G 877
Appendix H 919
Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies 927
About the Author 1053
Index 1055
