Handbook of Water and Wastewater Systems Protection

Name: Handbook of Water and Wastewater Systems Protection
Brand: Springer
Price: 213.99 EUR
Availability: OnlineOnly

Robert M. Clark Simon Hakim Avi Ostfeld(Editor)

Springer (Publisher)

1st Edition

Published on 1. September 2011

XVI, 528 pages

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978-1-4614-0189-6 (ISBN)

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Following the events of 9/11, the Administrator of the US Environmental Protection Agency created the Water Protection Task Force (WPTF), which identified water and wastewater systems as a major area of vulnerability to deliberate attack. The WPTF suggested that there are steps that can be taken to reduce these vulnerabilities and to make it as difficult as possible for potential saboteurs to succeed. The WPTF recommended that be scrutinized with renewed vigor to secure water and wastewater systems against these possible threats. It also recommended that water and wastewater systems have a response plan in place in the event an act of terrorism occurs. The WPTF identified water distribution networks as an area of special vulnerability and highlighted the need for rapid on-line detection methods that are accurate and have a wide detection range. As a result of these recommendations novel technologies from various fields of science and engineering are now addressing water security issues and water and wastewater utilities are looking for innovative solutions. Once such technologies are available, there will be a rapid implementation process that will present many business opportunities for the private sector. However, in addition to terrorist threats water and wastewater systems are inherently vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods. This volume will address the problems associated with both intended terrorist attacks and natural disasters affecting water or wastewater systems. The book is divided into parts based on the kinds of threats facing water and wastewater systems: (1) a direct attack on water and wastewater infrastructure storage reservoirs, and distribution and collection networks; (2) a cyber attack disabling the functionality of the water and wastewater systems or taking over control of key components which might result in system failures; and (3) a deliberate chemical or biological contaminant injection at one of the waterdistribution system's nodes. It will examine unique plans, technological and managerial innovations for protecting such systems, and includes descriptions of projects that were implemented to respond to natural disasters. Case studies are presented that discuss existing projects and evaluate their performance, with an emphasis on providing guidelines and techniques that can be implemented by water and wastewater planners and managers to deal with natural and manmade disasters should they occur.

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Intro
Acknowledgement
Contents
Contributors
1 Securing Water and Wastewater Systems: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Water Supply Vulnerability
1.3 Threats from Earthquakes
1.3.1 The Loma Prieta Earthquake
1.3.2 The Northridge Earthquake
1.3.3 Kobe City Earthquake
1.3.4 Technological and Institutional Adaptation
1.3.4.1 Technological Adaptations
1.3.4.2 Institutional Adaptations
1.4 Vulnerable Characteristics of US Water Supply Systems
1.5 The Threat of Terrorism to Urban Water Systems
1.5.1 Bioterrorism and Chemical Contamination
1.6 Countermeasures Against Terrorism
1.6.1 Physical Countermeasures
1.6.2 Sensor Networks
1.7 Cyber Security
1.7.1 Laws and Regulations Governing the Internet
1.7.2 Internet Recovery
1.7.3 Examples of Internet Interruption
1.7.3.1 Case Study -- The Slammer Worm
1.7.3.2 Case Study -- A Root Server Attack
1.7.3.3 Case Study -- The Baltimore Train Tunnel Fire
1.7.3.4 Case Study -- The September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attack on the World Trade Center
1.7.3.5 Case Study -- Hurricane Katrina
1.7.4 Cyber Attacks in the Public Sector
1.7.4.1 The ''Stuxnet'' Virus
1.8 Material to Be Included in This Book
1.8.1 Current State of Water Supply and Wastewater Systems Security: An Overview
1.8.2 Characteristics of Water and Wastewater Systems in the United States
1.8.3 Chemical and Microbiological Threats for Water System Contamination
1.8.4 Monitoring for Natural and Manmade Threats in Water and Wastewater Systems
1.8.5 Modeling Contaminant Propagation and Contaminant Threats
1.8.6 Case Study Applications
1.8.7 Distribution System Modeling, SCADA Systems, Security and Surveillance Systems
1.8.8 Institutional and Management Issues in Responding to Natural and Manmade Threats
1.8.9 Developing Techniques and Approaches for Natural and Manmade Threat Response
1.9 Summary and Conclusions
References
2 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Security: Threats and Vulnerabilities
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Why Secure Water Infrastructure?
2.3 Threats to Water Systems
2.3.1 Evolving Threat Environment
2.3.1.1 September 11 Terrorist Attacks
2.3.1.2 Hurricane Katrina
2.3.2 Threat Assessments
2.3.3 Natural Disasters
2.3.3.1 Human-Caused Incidents
2.3.3.2 External Threats
2.3.3.3 Internal Threats
2.3.3.4 Cyber Threats
2.3.4 Design Basis Threat
2.3.5 Continuity Threats to Workforce and Infrastructure
2.3.5.1 The Dual Threat: Aging Infrastructure and Aging Workforce
2.3.5.2 Aging Infrastructure
2.3.5.3 Interdependent Infrastructure Failures
2.3.5.4 Workforce Illness
2.4 Water System Vulnerabilities
2.4.1 Above-Ground Structures
2.4.2 Below-Ground Structures
2.4.3 SCADA and Cyber Systems
2.4.4 Vulnerability Assessments
References
3 EPA Drinking Water Security Research Program
3.1 Background
3.2 Research Drivers
3.3 Objectives and Desired Outcomes
3.4 Water Security Research
3.4.1 Protection and Prevention
3.4.1.1 Blast Vulnerability Assessment Tool
3.4.1.2 Design and Renovation of Drinking Water Systems
3.4.1.3 Contingency Planning Following Disasters and Disruption of Service
3.4.2 Detection
3.4.2.1 Commercially Available Sensors/Detectors
3.4.2.2 Development of New Detectors
3.4.2.3 Threat Ensemble Vulnerability Assessment Research
3.4.2.4 Public Health Surveillance
3.4.2.5 Sampling and Analytical Methods
3.4.2.6 Improving Microbial Contaminant Detection -- Sample Concentration
3.4.3 Containment and Mitigation
3.4.4 Water Treatment and Infrastructure Decontamination
3.4.4.1 Inactivation of Biothreat Agents
3.4.4.2 Persistence of Contaminants in Pipes and Other Water System Infrastructure
3.4.4.3 Inactivation of Anthrax Spores in Decontamination Wash/Waste Water
3.4.4.4 Quantitative Structure Property Relationship Prediction of Chlorine Reactivity with Chemical Contaminants of Concern
3.4.5 Technology Testing and Evaluation Program
3.5 Research Outcomes
3.6 Future Direction
Acronyms
References
4 Drinking Water Critical Infrastructure and Its Protection
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Water Security Issues
4.2.1 Water Sector Dependencies
4.2.2 Critical Infrastructure Definition
4.2.3 Contaminants of Concern
4.2.3.1 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
4.2.3.2 Center for Disease Control (CDC)
4.2.3.3 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
4.2.3.4 Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
4.2.3.5 World Health Organization (WHO) Database
4.2.3.6 Water Information Sharing and Analysis Center (WaterISAC)
4.2.3.7 Chemical Weapons Convention
4.2.3.8 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
4.2.3.9 US Department of Defense
4.2.3.10 National Institute of Justice (NIJ)
4.2.3.11 Congressional Research Service
4.3 Water Quality Security
4.3.1 Water Security Initiative (WSI)
4.3.2 Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) and Technology Testing and Evaluation (TTEP)
4.3.3 The Standardized Analytical Methods for Environmental Restoration Following Homeland Security Events (SAM)
4.3.4 Response Protocol Tool Box (RPTB)
4.3.5 Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT)
4.4 Water Quality Security Models
4.4.1 EPANET Family of Codes
4.4.2 TEVA's Sensor Placement Optimization Tool (SPOT)
4.4.3 CANARY
4.5 Physical Security
4.5.1 Physical Security Tools
4.6 Cyber Security
4.6.1 Specific Actions to Improve Implementation
4.6.2 Actions to Establish Essential Underlying Management Processes
References
5 Wastewater Critical Infrastructure Security and Protection
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wastewater Security Regulations
5.3 Early Warning System
5.3.1 Selection Criteria for an Early Warning System
5.3.2 Wastewater Contaminants of Concern Database
5.3.3 Wastewater Sensors
5.3.4 Sensor Locations
5.3.4.1 Local Conditions
5.3.4.2 System-Wide and Topological Factors
5.3.5 Anomaly Detection
5.4 Security Incidents: Consequences and Response
5.4.1 Decontamination
5.4.2 Response to Wastewater Treatment from CBR
5.4.3 Response to Upset Event in Wastewater -- Normal Conditions
5.5 EPA-WERF Wastewater Security Research
5.6 Summary
References
6 Protecting Water and Wastewater Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nebraskas Response to PL 1071--88
6.2.1 Vulnerability Assessments
6.2.2 Progress in Completing Vulnerability Assessments
6.2.3 Response to Emergencies
6.3 Nebraska's Public Water System Emergency Response Plan
6.3.1 Implementing the Plan
6.3.1.1 Training Activities
6.4 Potential for Replication
6.5 Summary and Conclusions
Appendix: Security Needs Assessment Summary
7 Spatial Distributed Risk Assessment for Urban Water Infrastructure
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Hazard Maps
7.1.2 Vulnerability Maps
7.1.3 Intrinsic Vulnerability Maps
7.1.4 Risk Maps
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.2.1 Performance Evaluation for Water Supply
7.2.2 Performance Evaluation for Urban Drainage
7.2.3 Vulnerability Assessment
7.2.4 Hazard Assessment
7.2.4.1 Flooding Hazard (h1)
7.2.4.2 Landslide Hazard (h2)
7.2.4.3 Avalanche Hazard (h3)
7.2.4.4 Debris Flow (h4)
7.2.5 Risk Assessment
7.2.6 Case Studies for Water Supply
7.2.7 Case Studies for Urban Drainage
7.3 Results and Discussion
7.3.1 Vulnerability Maps
7.3.2 Vulnerability Maps for WSSs
7.3.3 Vulnerability Maps for UDSs
7.3.4 Risk Maps
7.3.5 Summary of Risk Analysis
7.4 Conclusions
References
8 US Water and Wastewater Critical Infrastructure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Safe Drinking Water Act
8.3 Clean Water Act
8.4 Water and Wastewater Infrastructure
8.4.1 Drinking Water Infrastructure
8.4.2 Wastewater Infrastructure
8.4.2.1 Other US Water Infrastructure
8.5 Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs
8.6 Wastewater Infrastructure Needs
8.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
9 Microbial Issues in Drinking Water Security
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Bio-threat Agents
9.3 Persistence
9.4 Detection
9.5 Treatment
9.6 Summary
References
10 Rapid Detection of Bacteria in Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Waterborne Pathogens
10.3 History of Water System Contamination
10.3.1 Recent Water Contamination Experience in the USA
10.3.1.1 Cabool Missouri Case Study
10.3.1.2 Gideon, Missouri Case Study
10.3.1.3 Walkerton, Canada Case Study
10.3.1.4 Cryptosporidium Outbreak in Milwaukee
10.4 Need for Development of a Rapid Detection Method
10.5 Method Development
10.5.1 Sample Filtration
10.5.2 ATP Bioluminescence
10.5.3 Bacterial Enumeration: AODC, DVC, and HPC
10.6 Method Validation
10.6.1 Collection of Water Samples
10.6.2 Public Water Supplies in France
10.6.3 Results and Discussion
10.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
11 Chlorine Residual Management for Water Distribution System Security
11.1 Introduction and Background
11.2 Vulnerability Assessment Using Chlorine Residual Modeling
11.3 Chlorine Sensors for Nonspecific Event Detection
11.4 Booster Response to Low Chlorine
11.5 Future Directions in Chlorine Sensing for Drinking Water Distribution System Control
References
12 Biosensors for the Detection of E. coli O157:H7 in Source and Finished Drinking Water
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Concentration Methods for Biosensors
12.3 Recent Technological Advances
12.3.1 Liposomes
12.3.2 Quantum Dots
12.3.3 Luminex LabMAPTM
12.4 Case Studies: Biosensors for the Detection of E. coli O157:H7, 1998--2010
12.5 Biosensors for Viability Testing
12.6 A Strategy for Field Testing Biosensors by the Water Industry
12.6.1 Real-Time (Continuous) Sampling
12.6.2 Discrete (Grab) Sampling
12.6.3 Pilot-Scale Testing
12.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
13 Guidelines, Caveats, and Techniques for the Evaluation of Water Quality Early Warning Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Detection Class Requirements
13.3 Dual Use and Return on Investment
13.3.1 Optimized Distribution System Sensor Package
13.4 Operational Attributes
13.4.1 Ease of Use
13.4.2 Automated
13.4.3 Continuous
13.4.4 Reliable
13.4.5 Cost-Effective
13.5 Performance Attributes
13.5.1 Detection of a Broad Spectrum of Contaminant Classes
13.5.2 Rapid Detection of Events
13.5.3 Sensitivity to Concentration of Interest
13.5.4 Specificity
13.5.5 Reproducibility
13.5.6 Low False Negatives, Low False Positives
13.5.7 Qualitative
13.5.8 Quantitative
13.6 Coverage Characteristics
13.6.1 Cost
13.6.2 Area of Protection
13.6.3 Communication
13.7 Conclusion
References
14 Protecting Water and Wastewater Systems: Water Distribution Systems Security Modeling
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Water Networks Security
14.3 Challenges in Water Networks Security
14.3.1 Multiobjective Optimization for Sensor Placement
14.3.2 Online Contamination Warning Systems Evaluation
14.3.3 Fuzzy Sensor Data Inclusion for Contamination Source Detection
14.3.4 Detection Response Modeling
14.3.5 Fuzzy Sensor Data Incorporation for Sensor Layout Design
14.3.6 Overall Contamination Warning Systems (CWS) Design and Operation
14.4 Sensor Layout -- Example Application
14.4.1 Main Program Components
14.4.2 Example Application
14.4.3 Nature of a Pollution Event
14.4.4 Trade-off Curves
14.4.5 Base Run and Sensitivity Analysis
References
15 Protecting Consumers from Contaminated Drinking Water During Natural Disasters
15.1 Introduction
15.2 EPA Disaster Recovery Plan
15.3 Water Industry Collaboration
15.4 Water System Emergency Response and Recovery
15.4.1 Preliminary Preparations
15.4.1.1 Emergency Operations Plan
15.4.1.2 Emergency Response Procedures
15.4.1.3 Long-Term Support
15.4.2 Emergency Response Efforts After Hurricane Katrina
15.4.2.1 Damage to the Carrollton Treatment Plant
15.4.2.2 Water System Emergency Response
15.4.2.3 Recovery Cost Estimates
15.4.2.4 Multi-disciplinary Emergency Response
15.4.2.5 Recommendations Based on Lessons Learned
15.5 EPA Research on Portable and Mobile Water Treatment Systems
15.5.1 Point-of-Use (POU) Devices
15.5.2 Point-of-Entry (POE) Devices
15.5.3 Pour-Through Devices
15.5.4 Mobile Treatment Systems
15.5.5 Disinfectant Research
15.6 Summary
15.7 Notice
References
16 Cyber Security: Protecting Water and Wastewater Infrastructure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Overview of Water and Wastewater Cyber Infrastructure
16.2.1 Cyber Infrastructure Terminology
16.2.2 Cyber Infrastructure Connectivity
16.2.3 Evolution and Integration of Business and SCADA Networks
16.2.4 Managing Combined Business and SCADA Networks
16.3 Cyber Infrastructure -- Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Attacks
16.3.1 Cyber Threats and Vulnerabilities
16.3.2 Cyber Attack Vulnerability Statistics
16.3.3 Cyber Attacks on Industrial Infrastructure and Outcomes
16.3.4 Cyber Attack Tools and Scenarios
16.4 Relevant Standards
16.4.1 ISO/IEC 27002 (Formerly 17799)
16.4.2 NIST Publications -- Special Publication 800-82
16.4.3 ISA SP-99
16.4.4 NERC CIP
16.4.5 International Instrument User's Association (EWE)
16.5 Implementing Cyber Security-- Defense In Depth
16.5.1 SANS -- Tools That Work
16.5.2 Capital Improvement Projects
16.5.3 Practical Implementation Guide
16.6 Organized Efforts to Address the Challenges
16.6.1 Department of Homeland Security
16.6.2 WaterISAC
16.6.3 Water Sector Road Map
16.7 Unresolved Challenges
16.7.1 Voluntary Standards
16.7.2 Voluntary Incident Reporting
16.7.3 Patching Software and Firmware Vulnerabilities
16.7.4 Financial Constraints
16.8 Summary
16.9 Helpful Internet Resources
References
17 Real-World Case Studies for Sensor Network Design of Drinking Water Contamination Warning Systems
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Drinking Water Contamination Warning Systems
17.3 Designing Sensor Networks for Contamination Warning Systems
17.4 Literature Review
17.5 The TEVA-SPOT Software
17.6 Real-World Case Studies
17.6.1 Sensor Network Design for Greater Cincinnati Water Works
17.6.2 Sensor Network Design for New Jersey American Water
17.6.3 Sensor Network Design for Tucson Water
17.6.4 Sensor Network Design for the City of Ann Arbor
17.7 Challenges for Real-World Applications
17.7.1 Selecting the Best Objective
17.7.2 Number of Sensors
17.7.3 Sensor Network Design Based on High-Impact Incidents
17.7.4 Sensor Placement for Large Networks
17.8 Discussion
References
18 Enhanced Monitoring to Protect Distribution System Water Quality
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Multi-parameter Online Monitors
18.3 Maintenance and Calibration
18.4 Sites for Sensor Deployment
18.5 Automated Meter Readers
18.6 Remote Data Communications
18.7 Data Management
18.8 Consequence Management Plans
18.9 Conclusions
References
19 Testing and Evaluation of Water Quality Event Detection Algorithms
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Background
19.1.2 CANARY Software
19.1.3 Chapter Overview
19.2 Event Detection Algorithms
19.2.1 Linear Filter
19.2.2 Multivariate Nearest Neighbor
19.2.3 Binomial Event Discriminator
19.3 EDS Analysis
19.3.1 Data Sets
19.3.2 Window Size and Prediction Errors
19.3.3 Threshold Value and False Alarms
19.3.4 Simulation of Water Quality Events
19.3.5 Event Detection Results
19.3.6 Sensitivity Analysis
19.4 Discussion
19.5 Conclusions
References
20 Water Infrastructure Protection Against Intentional Attacks: The Experience of Two European Research Projects
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Adopted Procedure
20.2.1 The General Layout
20.2.2 Risk Assessment
20.2.3 Risk Reduction: Evaluation of Alternatives
20.3 The Pilot Sites
20.3.1 The Sorrento Peninsula Water Supply System (SPWSS)
20.3.2 The Vesuvian Water Supply System (VWSS)
20.4 Protection System Design on the Pilot Sites
20.4.1 Design Base Threats and Attack Scenarios
20.4.2 Risk Assessment
20.4.3 Risk Reduction
20.4.3.1 The Physical Countermeasures
20.4.3.2 The Dynamic Response Concept
20.4.3.3 The Physical Surveillance System
20.4.3.4 The OCMS
20.4.4 The Data Transmission System
20.4.5 The Response
20.5 Conclusion
References
21 Utility of Supercomputers in Trace-Back Algorithms for City-Sized Distribution Systems
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Literature Review
21.3 Methodology
21.3.1 Existing Data Mining Procedure
21.3.2 Extension to Uncertainty Analysis
21.3.3 Number of Scenarios Required
21.3.4 Impact of Storing More Scenarios
21.3.4.1 Case I
21.3.4.2 Case II
21.3.5 False-Negative Rate
21.3.6 GIS Toolkit Development
21.4 Case Studies
21.5 Conclusions
Appendix
References
22 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Security: A Multilayered Security Approach
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Where to Begin?
22.2.1 Evaluation of Existing Countermeasures
22.2.2 Protective Programs
22.2.2.1 Suspicious Behavior Reporting
22.2.2.2 Source Water Protection Programs
22.2.2.3 Water Quality Monitoring
22.2.2.4 Security and Emergency Management Programs
22.3 Security Drivers
22.3.1 Risk-Based Justifications
22.3.1.1 Risk Assessment Tools
22.3.2 Must Do
22.3.2.1 Regulatory Agencies and Mandates
22.3.2.2 Chemical and Water Security Legislation
22.3.3 Gut Feeling
22.3.3.1 Black Hat, White Hat Exercise
22.4 Security Countermeasures
22.4.1 Physical Security Considerations
22.4.1.1 Deter
22.4.1.2 Delay
22.4.1.3 Detect
22.4.1.4 Assess
22.4.1.5 Achieving Assessment with In-House Monitoring
22.4.1.6 Respond
22.5 Multilayered Security Approach
22.5.1 Prevention
22.5.1.1 Intelligence Activities
22.5.1.2 Access Control
22.5.1.3 Screening People
22.5.1.4 Investigations and Law Enforcement
22.5.1.5 Security Planning and Risk Mitigation
22.5.2 Protection
22.5.2.1 Asset Classification
22.5.2.2 Assess Vulnerabilities
22.5.2.3 Security Countermeasures
22.5.2.4 Patrols and Monitoring
22.5.3 Preparedness
22.5.3.1 Pre-gathering Information
22.5.3.2 Contingency Planning
22.5.3.3 Testing, Training, and Exercises
22.5.3.4 Threat-Level Planning
22.5.3.5 Mutual Aid Agreements
22.5.4 Response
22.5.4.1 Response Actions
22.5.4.2 Incident Management
22.5.4.3 National Incident Management System (NIMS)
22.6 Summary
23 Vulnerability of Water and Wastewater Infrastructure and Its Protection from Acts of Terrorism: A Business Perspective
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Historical Background
23.3 Identification of Terrorism on Water and Wastewater Infrastructure
23.4 Vulnerabilities of Water and Wastewater Systems
23.5 Responses to Water and Wastewater Terrorism
23.5.1 Conventional Commercial Business Behavior
23.5.2 Future Mitigations to Threat Perceptions
23.5.3 Practical Business Strategies to Reduce the Threat
23.6 Crisis Control
23.6.1 Crisis Leadership
23.6.2 Crisis Management
23.6.3 Plan, Prepare, and Respond
23.6.4 Business Benefits
23.7 Crisis Exercise
23.7.1 Types of Exercises
23.7.1.1 Tabletop Exercises
23.7.1.2 Incident and Emergency Exercises
23.7.1.3 Live Exercises
23.7.1.4 Business Continuity Exercises
23.7.2 Exercise Roles and Responsibilities
23.7.2.1 Exercise Manager
23.7.2.2 Exercise Controller
23.7.2.3 Crisis Management Team/Incident Management Team
23.7.2.4 Counterplayer Team
23.7.2.5 Observers
23.7.2.6 Runners
23.7.2.7 Exercise Scribe
23.7.2.8 Public Relations
23.7.3 Exercise Documentation
23.7.3.1 Exercise Master Document
23.7.3.2 Exercise Script
23.7.3.3 Counterplayers Brief
23.7.3.4 Live Participants Brief
23.7.4 Exercise Planning
23.7.4.1 Single, Double, or Triple Jeopardy
23.7.4.2 Exercise Aim
23.7.4.3 Exercise Scope
23.7.4.4 Exercise Identity
23.7.4.5 Exercise Timing
23.7.4.6 Catering and Logistical Support
23.7.5 Exercise Process
23.7.5.1 Typical Process Model
23.7.5.2 Exercise Communications and Control
23.7.5.3 Exercise Review
23.8 Conclusion
References
About the Editors
About the Principle Contributors
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Handbook of Water and Wastewater Systems Protection

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