Syntax

Preface and Acknowledgments xiii

Part 1 Preliminaries 1

1 Generative Grammar 3

0. Preliminaries 3

1. Syntax as a Cognitive Science 5

2. Modeling Syntax 6

3. Syntax as Science - the Scientific Method 7

4. Where Do the Rules Come From? 18

5. Choosing among Theories about Syntax 29

6. The Scientific Method and the Structure of this Textbook 29

7. Conclusion 31

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 31

General Problem Sets 33

Challenge Problem Sets 36

2 Parts of Speech 43

0. Words and Why They Matter to Syntax 44

1. Determining Part of Speech 45

2. The Major Parts of Speech: N, V, Adj, and Adv 48

3. Open vs. Closed; Lexical vs. Functional 51

4. Subcategories and Features 54

5. Conclusion 61

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 61

General Problem Sets 62

Challenge Problem Sets 66

3 Constituency, Trees, and Rules 71

0. Introduction 71

1. Rules and Trees 74

2. How to Draw a Tree 90

3. Modification and Ambiguity 96

4. Constituency Tests 98

5. Constituency in Other Languages 100

6. Summary and Conclusion 106

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 106

General Problem Sets 107

Challenge Problem Sets 114

4 Structural Relations 117

0. Introduction 117

1. The Parts of a Tree 118

2. Domination 120

3. Precedence 125

4. C-command 127

5. Grammatical Relations 132

6. Summary and Conclusions 135

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 135

General Problem Sets 137

Challenge Problem Sets 144

5 Binding Theory 147

0. Introduction 147

1. The Notions Coindex and Antecedent 149

2. Binding 151

3. Locality Conditions on the Binding of Anaphors 153

4. The Distribution of Pronouns 155

5. The Distribution of R-expressions 156

6. Conclusion 156

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 157

General Problem Sets 158

Challenge Problem Sets 159

Part 2 The Base 163

6 X-bar Theory 165

0. Introduction 165

1. Bar-level Projections 167

2. Generalizing the Rules: The X-bar Schema 172

3. Complements, Adjuncts, and Specifiers 175

4. Some Definitional Housekeeping 185

5. Parameters of Word Order 186

6. Drawing Trees in X-bar Notation 189

7. X-bar Theory: A Summary 198

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 199

General Problem Sets 200

Challenge Problem Sets 204

7 Extending X-bar Theory to Functional Categories 207

0. Introduction 207

1. Determiner Phrases (DPs) 208

2. A Descriptive Tangent into Clause Types 211

3. Complementizer Phrases (CPs) 216

4. Tense Phrases (TPs) 219

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 221

General Problem Sets 222

Challenge Problem Sets 224

8 Constraining X-bar: Theta Theory 227

0. Introduction 227

1. Some Basic Terminology 228

2. Thematic Relations and Theta Roles 229

3. The Lexicon 236

4. Expletives and the Extended Projection Principle 237

5. Conclusion 239

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 240

General Problem Sets 241

Challenge Problem Sets 245

9 Auxiliaries and Functional Categories 249

0. Introduction 250

1. Complementizers 250

2. Determiners 254

3. Understanding Tense, Aspect, Voice, and Mood 258

4. Auxiliaries 263

5. Conclusion 278

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 279

General Problem Sets 281

Challenge Problem Sets 284

Part 3 Movement 287

10 Head-to-Head Movement 289

0. Introduction 289

1. Verb Movement (V ¿ T) 292

2. T Movement (T ¿ C) 308

3. Do-support 311

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 312

General Problem Sets 313

Challenge Problem Sets 318

11 DP Movement 323

0. Introduction 323

1. A Puzzle for the Theory of Theta Roles 324

2. Passives 330

3. Case 335

4. Raising: Reprise 339

5. Passives: Reprise 342

6. Tying Up a Loose End 344

7. Conclusion 346

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 346

General Problem Sets 347

Challenge Problem Sets 352

12 Wh-movement and Locality Constraints 357

0. Introduction 357

1. Movement in Wh-questions 359

2. Relative Clauses 369

3. Islands 374

4. The Minimal Link Condition 377

5. Echo Questions (Wh-in-situ) in English 382

6. Conclusion 383

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 384

General Problem Sets 385

Challenge Problem Sets 387

13 A Unified Theory of Movement 391

0. Introduction 391

1. Move 393

2. Explaining Cross-linguistic Differences 396

3. Scope, Covert Movement, and the MLC 401

4. Conclusion 405

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 405

General Problem Sets 406

Challenge Problem Sets 406

Part 4 Advanced Topics 409

14 Expanded VPs 411

0. Introduction 411

1. The Problem of Ditransitive Verbs 412

2. The Active Voice Head and Other Light Verbs 413

3. Object Shift 416

4. Ditransitives: Reprise 421

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 425

General Problem Sets 425

Challenge Problem Sets 427

15 Raising, Control, and Empty Categories 429

0. Introduction 430

1. Raising vs. Control 431

2. Two Kinds of Raising, Two Kinds of Control 439

3. Control Theory 445

4. Another Kind of Null Subject: "Little" pro 449

5. Conclusion 450

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 451

General Problem Sets 452

Challenge Problem Sets 454

16 Ellipsis 457

0. Ellipsis 457

1. LF-copying or PF-deletion 460

2. Antecedent-Contained Deletion and Pseudogapping 466

3. Conclusion 470

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 471

General Problem Sets 472

Challenge Problem Sets 475

17 Advanced Topics in Binding Theory 477

0. Introduction 477

1. Levels of Representation 478

2. The Definition of Binding Domain 480

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 486

General Problem Sets 487

Challenge Problem Sets 489

18 Polysynthesis, Incorporation, and Non-configurationality 491

0. Introduction 491

1. Polysynthesis 492

2. Incorporation 494

3. Scrambling and Non-configurationality 496

4. Conclusions 505

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 505

General Problem Sets 506

Challenge Problem Sets 507

Conclusions and Directions for Further Study 509

References 511

Index 519