Kyoto: From Principles to Practice

Name: Kyoto: From Principles to Practice | From Principles to Practice
Brand: Kluwer Law International
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From Principles to Practice

Peter D. Cameron Donald Zillman(Editor)

Kluwer Law International (Publisher)

Published on 1. December 2001

418 pages

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978-90-411-7743-8 (ISBN)

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Cover
Half Title Page
Editorial Board
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Series Editors' Preface
Preface
List of Contributors
List of Abbreviations
I. Introduction
1. The Kyoto Process: Past, Present and Future
1. THE PROBLEM
1.1. Introduction
1.2. The Scientific Basis
1.3. The Industry Context
2. THE ANSWER
2.1. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)
2.2. The Kyoto Protocol
2.2.1. Joint Implementation (JI)
2.2.2. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
2.2.3. Emissions Trading (ET)
2.3. Post-Kyoto Developments
3. THE CONTRIBUTORS' ANALYSIS
3.1. North America
3.2. Europe
3.3. Australia/New Zealand
3.4. The Developing Countries
4. CONCLUSIONS
II. Europe
2. Climate Change and the European Community
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE COMMUNITY'S INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS POST-KYOTO
3. THE COMMUNITY'S INTERNAL STRATEGY TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
3.1. Fiscal Measures
3.2. Promotion of the Use of Renewable Energy
3.3. Promotion of Energy Efficiency
3.4. Transport Sector
4. SOME CONCLUSIONS
3. The Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: The Norwegian Perspective
1. CONTEXT, MAIN ISSUES AND LEVEL OF DEBATE
2. NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS TO REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS
2.1. Regulatory Instruments: The Case of the Gas Power Plants
2.2. 'Voluntary Agreements'
2.3. The CO2 Taxes
2.4. A National Trading System for GHG Emissions
2.5. Other Instruments and Measures
3. INCENTIVES TO ADOPT ALTERNATIVES
4. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND LINKAGE
5. CONCLUSIONS AND ASSESSMENT
4. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: Legal Implications in Spain
1. INTRODUCTION: THE KYOTO PROTOCOL AND ITS CONSEQUENCES FOR THE EUROPEAN UNION AND SPAIN
2. MEASURES RESEARCHED IN SPAIN TO IMPLEMENT THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
2.1. The National Council for Climate (Consejo Nacional del Clima)
2.2. A Spanish Strategy on Energy Management to Meet Climate Change
2.3. The Energy Saving and Efficiency Program (Plan de Ahorro y Eficiencia Energética, PAEE)
2.4. Development of Renewable Energy in the 1997 Spanish Electric Sector Act (Ley del Sector Eléctrico de 1997)
2.4.1. General Legislation: Creating an Organized Electricity Market
2.4.2. Legislation on Power Generated from Renewable Energy Sources and Co-generation Systems
2.5. The Plan for the Development of Renewables
2.5.1. Background
2.5.2. Scope
3. CONCLUSIONS
5. Legal Incentives to Alternative Energies in German Energy Law
1. INTRODUCTION
2. RENEWABLE OR ALTERNATIVE ENERGIES IN THE NEW ENERGY ACT
2.1. Objectives and Definitions
2.2. Alternative Energies within the Complex of Grid Access
2.3. Other Instances of Relevance of Environment and Resource Protection
3. THE FEEDING OF ELECTRICITY FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY FACILITIES AND CHP INTO THE GRID
3.1. Basic Development of the Problem
3.2. Basic Features of the Renewable Energies Act (REA)
3.3. Basic Features of the 'Act for the Protection of CHP-produced Electricity' (CHP-Act)
3.4. Legal and Constitutional Problems
4. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
6. Germany: Political Initiatives Concerning the Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. The General Political Context
1.2. Some Statistical Aspects
2. MAIN GUIDELINES
3. A BROAD PACKAGE OF DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS
3.1. Energy Mix
3.2. Voluntary Actions
3.3. Energy Saving
3.4. Research and Technology
Education and Professional Training
3.5. Transport Sector
3.6. Agriculture and Forestry
4. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND LINKAGE
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
7. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and its Consequences for the Dutch Energy Sector
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DUTCH ENERGY RESOURCES AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
2.1. Energy Resources
2.2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3. INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK AND INSTRUMENTS
3.1. Institutional Framework
3.2. Policy Framework
3.3. Policy Instruments
4. DOMESTIC POLICIES AND INSTRUMENTS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
4.1. National Policy Plans
4.2. Energy Conservation
4.2.1. Policy Plans
4.2.2. Traffic and Transport
4.2.3. The Housing Sector
4.2.4. The Industrial Sector
4.3. Coal-fired Power Plants
4.4. Co-generation
4.4.1. Introduction
4.4.2. The Electricity Act of 1989 and the Development of CHP
4.4.3. The Position of CHP in a Liberalised Energy Market
4.5. Development of Sustainable Energy
4.5.1. Introduction
4.5.2. Policy Framework
4.5.3. Renewable Energy Resources in the Netherlands
4.5.4. Sustainable Energy and the Electricity Act
4.6. Financial and Fiscal Measures
4.6.1. Introduction
4.6.2. Environmental Tax on Fuels
4.6.3. VAMIL
4.6.4. Environmental Levies and Energy Investment Tax Credit
4.6.5. Energy Regulatory Tax
4.6.6. Tax Free Income from Green Funds
4.7. CO2 Projects
4.7.1. Introduction
4.7.2. CO2 Reduction Plan
4.7.3. Sinks
4.7.4. CO2 Storage
4.7.5. The CO2 Committee
5. INTERNATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS AND FLEXIBLE MECHANISMS
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Joint Implementation
5.2.1. Introduction
5.2.2. Pilot Projects
5.2.3. Joint Implementation after 2000
5.2.4. Clean Development Mechanism
5.2.5. Emission Trading
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
8. The Danish Way of Combating Greenhouse Gas Emissions
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE DANISH ENERGY RESOURCE BASE
3. DEVELOPMENTS IN ENERGY POLICIES
4. MEASURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE KYOTO COMMITMENTS
4.1. Electricity
4.1.1. Developments from 1976-1998
4.1.2. The Electricity Reform 1999
4.2. CO2 Quota
4.3. Heat
4.3.1. Developments from 1979-1999
4.3.2. The Heat Reform 2000
4.4. Natural Gas
4.4.1. Developments from 1979-1999
4.4.2. The Gas Reform 2000
4.5. Renewable Energy
4.5.1. Introduction
4.5.2. Development of the Renewable Resources
4.5.3. Wind
4.5.4. The Regulatory Framework for Wind Energy
4.5.5. Financial Incentives for Developing Wind Energy
4.5.6. Payment for Wind-Generated Electricity
4.6. Energy Taxes
4.7. Subsidies
4.8. Reduction of Emissions
4.9. Energy Conservation
4.9.1. The Energy Saving Act
4.9.2. Labelling, Efficiency Standards and Auditing
4.9.3. Building Codes
4.9.4. Other Initiatives
5. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
6. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
7. PROSPECTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROTOCOL
III. North America
9. Canadian Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol: Legal Implications for the Energy Sector
1. CONTEXT AND LEVEL OF DEBATE
1.1. Government Commitment
1.2. National Profile and Context
1.3. Energy Sector Focus
1.4. Public Discussion and Awareness
1.5. Industry Response
2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Constitutional Competence
3. THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK
3.1. Federal Emissions Regulation Scheme
3.1.1. Toxic Emissions
3.1.2. International Air Pollution
3.1.3. Emissions Trading
3.2. Fuels
3.3. Vehicle Exhaust Emissions
3.4. Energy Efficiency
3.5. Environmental Impact Assessment
3.5.1. Federal Environmental Assessment
3.5.2. Provincial Environmental Assessment
3.5.3. GHG Impacts - Joint Assessment
3.5.4. Regulatory Intervention
4. INCENTIVES FOR ENERGY ALTERNATIVES
4.1. Natural Resources Canada (NR Can) Programs
4.2. Small Power Programs
5. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND LINKAGE
5.1. Joint Implementation/Clean Development Mechanism
5.2. North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
5.2.1. Citizen Submissions
6. COMPLIANCE
6.1. Regulatory Enforcement
6.2. Voluntary Compliance
6.3. Mediation
6.4. Citizen Investigation Petitions
6.5. Boards of Review
6.6. Compliance Agreements
7. ADAPTIVE MECHANISMS
7.1. Existing National Action Program
7.2. Kyoto Protocol Implementation Strategy Development Process
7.3. Regulatory Enabling Legislation
7.4. Cooperative Standards Development
7.5. Voluntary Compliance Initiatives
7.6. Emissions Trading
7.7. Early Action Credit
7.8. Electricity Industry Restructuring
8. ASSESSMENT OF EFFORTS
8.1. The Strategy Development Process
8.1.1. Lack of Accountability
8.1.2. Implementing a Strategy
8.2. Lack of Legal and Regulatory Analysis
8.3. Voluntary Compliance and Regulation
8.4. Revising Regulatory Standards
9. CONCLUSION
10. The United States Perspective
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE US ENERGY, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND ECONOMIC PICTURE
2.1. An Overview of the Challenge
2.2. An Inventory of the Greenhouse Gases
2.2.1. Carbon Dioxide
2.2.2. Methane
2.2.3. Nitrous Oxide
2.2.4. Halocarbons and Other Gases
2.3. Land Use and Forestry
2.4. The Role of Economics
3. THE US INTERNATIONAL POLICY
4. THE CURRENT US DOMESTIC DEBATE - KYOTO SUPPORTERS OUT IN THE COLD OR CRITICS THAWING?
5. THE US LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE
6. ENCOURAGING GHG CONTROLS DOMESTICALLY
6.1. Voluntary GHG Reduction Programs
6.2. Fiscal Incentives
6.3. Domestic Emissions Credits
7. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND LINKAGE
7.1. Emissions Trading
7.2. Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism
8. COMPLIANCE
9. CONCLUSION
IV. Latin America
11. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: Legal Implications. Latin American Region - Part I
1. BACKGROUND
2. LATIN AMERICA AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
3. ARGENTINA
3.1. Profile
3.2. Policy Approach
3.3. Regulatory Framework
3.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
3.4.1. Climate Change Coordination
3.4.2. Information
3.4.3. Funding for Implementation
3.4.4. Enforcement
4. BRAZIL
4.1. Profile
4.2. Policy Approach
4.3. Regulatory Framework
4.3.1. PROALCOOL Program
4.3.2. CONSERVE Program
4.3.3. PROCEL Program
4.3.4. CONPET Program
4.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
4.4.1. Climate Change Coordination
4.4.2. Information
4.4.3. Funding for Implementation
4.4.4. Enforcement
5. MEXICO
5.1. Profile
5.2. Policy Framework
5.3. Regulatory Framework
5.3.1. Fuel Improvement Program
5.3.2. Fuel Substitution - Promotion of Natural Gas
5.3.3. Energy Savings and Efficient Use
5.3.4. Promotion of Renewable Sources
5.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
5.4.1. Climate Change Coordination
5.4.2. Information
5.4.3. Funding for Implementation
5.4.4. Enforcement
6. IMPACT OF REGIONAL TRADE
7. COMPARATIVE REVIEW: TRENDS AND ISSUES
8. CONCLUSION
12. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: Legal Implications. Latin American Region - Part II
1. INTRODUCTORY REMARK
2. BOLIVIA
2.1. Profile
2.2. Policy Approach
2.3. Regulatory Framework
2.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
3. VENEZUELA
3.1. Profile
3.2. Policy Approach
3.3. Regulatory Framework
3.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
4. PERU
4.1. Profile
4.2. Policy Approach
4.3. Regulatory Framework
4.4. Institutional and Implementation Framework
5. FINAL REMARKS
V. Asia-Pacific I: North Asia
13. The Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: Legal and Economic Implications of Implementation. The Chinese Perspective
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN CHINA
2.1. Energy Resources
2.1.1. Coal
2.1.2. Oil and Gas
2.1.3. Water Resources
2.1.4. Biomass Fuel (Fire Wood and Crop Stalks)
2.1.5. Methane
2.1.6. Solar Energy and Wind Power
2.1.7. Nuclear Energy
2.1.8. Terrestrial Heat and Ocean Energy
2.2. Energy Production and Consumption
2.3. Energy and the Environment
3. THE KYOTO PROTOCOL AND CHINA
3.1. Context and Debate
3.2. Chinese Negotiating Positions on the Convention
3.3. China's Negotiating Position at the Conferences of Parties
3.4. China's Assessment of the Kyoto Protocol
4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
4.1. Institutional and Legal Framework
4.2. National Policy on Implementation
5. IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS ON THE ENERGY INDUSTRY
5.1. Impact and Implications on the Industry
5.2. Challenges and Opportunities
6. SOME CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
14. National and International Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol: An International Lawyer's View
1. JAPANESE LAW CONCERNING THE PROMOTION OF THE MEASURES TO COPE WITH GLOBAL WARMING AS AN EXAMPLE OF A STARTING POINT FOR NATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION
2. POSSIBLE SANCTIONS OF SUBSTANTIVE NON-COMPLIANCE OF THE OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE KYOTO PROTOCOL: A CONSIDERATION FROM THE POINT OF GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW
3. CONCLUDING REMARKS: 'CONFRONTATION WITHIN COOPERATION' AND 'ALLOCATION'
VI. Asia-Pacific II: South Asia (SE Asia and Australasia)
15. The Kyoto Protocol and the Energy Industry: Australia and the Asia-Pacific
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (FCCC) AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
2.1. Differentiated Targets
2.2. National Systems
2.3. Compliance
2.4. General Commitments of Annex I Parties
2.5. Flexibility Mechanisms
2.5.1. Emissions Trading
2.5.2. Clean Development Mechanism
2.5.3. Joint Agreements
2.6. Obligations of All Parties
3. AUSTRALIA'S RESOURCE AND ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES
4. AUSTRALIA'S INTERNATIONAL POLICY
5. AUSTRALIA'S NATIONAL GREENHOUSE STRATEGY 1998
5.1. Characteristics of Australia's Response to the Greenhouse Challenge
5.2. Identification of the 'Early Action Problem'
5.3. 1998 National Greenhouse Strategy (NGS)
5.4. Administrative Mechanisms for Implementation
5.5. Greenhouse Science and Information
5.6. Limiting Greenhouse Emissions
5.6.1. Industry, Community and Government Partnerships
5.6.2. Energy
5.6.3. Agriculture and Forestry: Greenhouse Sinks
5.6.4. Resources Sector
6. DOMESTIC EMISSIONS TRADING IN AUSTRALIA
7. INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS AND COOPERATION: AUSTRALIA'S OVERSEAS AID PROGRAM
8. SUMMARY OF AUSTRALIA'S CONFORMITY WITH ITS OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE FCCC
9. CLIMATE CHANGE INITIATIVES IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION
9.1. Malaysia
9.2. The Philippines
9.3. Indonesia
9.4. Vietnam
9.5. Thailand
9.6. South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP)
16. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry - New Zealand
1. CONTEXT AND LEVEL OF DEBATE
1.1. Energy and the Energy Industry
1.2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Storage
1.3. Climate Change Policy
2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. General
2.2. Resource Management Act 1991
2.3. Voluntary Agreements
2.4. Energy Efficiency Strategy
2.5. Energy Sector Reform
2.6. Transport Sector
2.7. Agriculture and Forestry Reforms
2.8. Emissions Trading
2.9. Carbon Charges
3. INCENTIVES TO ALTERNATIVES
4. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND LINKAGE
5. ASSESSMENT
VII. Africa
17. The Kyoto Protocol and the International Energy Industry: The Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol in Nigeria
1. INTRODUCTION
2. NIGERIA
3. THE ENERGY INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
3.1. Crude Oil
3.2. Natural Gas
3.3. Bitumen
3.4. Coal
3.5. Electricity
4. NIGERIA'S LEGAL OBLIGATIONS RELATING TO CLIMATE CHANGE
5. THE NIGERIAN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
6. THE LAW AND POLICY FRAMEWORK
7. THE FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
8. THE NATIONAL POLICY ON THE ENVIRONMENT
9. THE ENERGY COMMISSION OF NIGERIA
10. THE NIGERIAN ENERGY POLICY
11. THE OIL POLICY
12. LAWS RELATING TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
13. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MEASURES
13.1. Gas Flaring
13.2. Bush Burning
13.3. Vehicular Emissions
13.4. The Use of Alternative Fuels
13.5. Promoting Fuel Efficiency
14. CONCLUSION
Index
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