
Online Panel Research
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Persons
Mario Callegaro, Survey Research Scientist, Quantitative Marketing, Google Inc., UK
Reg Baker, President & Chief Operating Officer, Market Strategies International, USA
Paul J. Lavrakas, Nielsen Media Research, Research Psychologist/Research Methodologist, USA
Jon A. Krosnick, Professor of Political Science, Communication, Psychology, Stanford University, USA
Jelke Bethlehem, Department of Quantitative Economics, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Anja Göritz, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Department of Economics and Social Psychology, Germany
Content
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Editors xix
About the Contributors xxiii
1 Online panel research: History, concepts, applications and a look at the future 1
Mario Callegaro, Reg Baker, Jelke Bethlehem, Anja S. Göritz, Jon A. Krosnick, and Paul J. Lavrakas
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Internet penetration and online panels 2
1.3 Definitions and terminology 2
1.4 A brief history of online panels 4
1.5 Development and maintenance of online panels 6
1.6 Types of studies for which online panels are used 15
1.7 Industry standards, professional associations' guidelines, and advisory groups 15
1.8 Data quality issues 17
1.9 Looking ahead to the future of online panels 17
2 A critical review of studies investigating the quality of data obtained with online panels based on probability and nonprobability samples 23
Mario Callegaro, Ana Villar, David Yeager, and Jon A. Krosnick
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Taxonomy of comparison studies 24
2.3 Accuracy metrics 27
2.4 Large-scale experiments on point estimates 28
2.5 Weighting adjustments 35
2.6 Predictive relationship studies 36
2.7 Experiment replicability studies 38
2.8 The special case of pre-election polls 42
2.9 Completion rates and accuracy 43
2.10 Multiple panel membership 43
2.11 Online panel studies when the offline population is less of a concern 46
2.12 Life of an online panel member 47
2.13 Summary and conclusion 48
Part I COVERAGE 55
Introduction to Part I 56
Mario Callegaro and Jon A. Krosnick
3 Assessing representativeness of a probability-based online panel in Germany 61
Bella Struminskaya, Lars Kaczmirek, Ines Schaurer, and Wolfgang Bandilla
3.1 Probability-based online panels 61
3.2 Description of the GESIS Online Panel Pilot 62
3.3 Assessing recruitment of the Online Panel Pilot 66
3.4 Assessing data quality: Comparison with external data 68
3.5 Results 74
3.6 Discussion and conclusion 80
4 Online panels and validity: Representativeness and attrition in the Finnish eOpinion panel 86
Kimmo Grönlund and Kim Strandberg
4.1 Introduction 86
4.2 Online panels: Overview of methodological considerations 87
4.3 Design and research questions 88
4.4 Data and methods 90
4.5 Findings 92
4.6 Conclusion 100
5 The untold story of multi-mode (online and mail) consumer panels: From optimal recruitment to retention and attrition 104
Allan L. McCutcheon, Kumar Rao, and Olena Kaminska
5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Literature review 107
5.3 Methods 108
5.4 Results 115
5.5 Discussion and conclusion 124
Part II NONRESPONSE 127
Introduction to Part II 128
Jelke Bethlehem and Paul J. Lavrakas
6 Nonresponse and attrition in a probability-based online panel for the general population 135
Peter Lugtig, Marcel Das, and Annette Scherpenzeel
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Attrition in online panels versus offline panels 137
6.3 The LISS panel 139
6.4 Attrition modeling and results 142
6.5 Comparison of attrition and nonresponse bias 148
6.6 Discussion and conclusion 150
7 Determinants of the starting rate and the completion rate in online panel studies 154
Anja S. Göritz
7.1 Introduction 154
7.2 Dependent variables 155
7.3 Independent variables 156
7.4 Hypotheses 156
7.5 Method 163
7.6 Results 164
7.7 Discussion and conclusion 166
8 Motives for joining nonprobability online panels and their association with survey participation behavior 171
Florian Keusch, Bernad Batinic, and Wolfgang Mayerhofer
8.1 Introduction 171
8.2 Motives for survey participation and panel enrollment 173
8.3 Present study 176
8.4 Results 179
8.5 Conclusion 185
9 Informing panel members about study results: Effects of traditional and innovative forms of feedback on participation 192
Annette Scherpenzeel and Vera Toepoel
9.1 Introduction 192
9.2 Background 193
9.3 Method 196
9.4 Results 199
9.5 Discussion and conclusion 207
Part III MEASUREMENT ERROR 215
Introduction to Part III 216
Reg Baker and Mario Callegaro
10 Professional respondents in nonprobability online panels 219
D. Sunshine Hillygus, Natalie Jackson, and McKenzie Young
10.1 Introduction 219
10.2 Background 220
10.3 Professional respondents and data quality 221
10.4 Approaches to handling professional respondents 223
10.5 Research hypotheses 224
10.6 Data and methods 225
10.7 Results 226
10.8 Satisficing behavior 229
10.9 Discussion 232
11 The impact of speeding on data quality in nonprobability and freshly recruited probability-based online panels 238
Robert Greszki, Marco Meyer, and Harald Schoen
11.1 Introduction 238
11.2 Theoretical framework 239
11.3 Data and methodology 242
11.4 Response time as indicator of data quality 243
11.5 How to measure "speeding"? 246
11.6 Does speeding matter? 251
11.7 Conclusion 257
Part IV WEIGHTING ADJUSTMENTS 263
Introduction to Part IV 264
Jelke Bethlehem and Mario Callegaro
12 Improving web survey quality: Potentials and constraints of propensity score adjustments 273
Stephanie Steinmetz, Annamaria Bianchi, Kea Tijdens, and Silvia Biffignandi
12.1 Introduction 273
12.2 Survey quality and sources of error in nonprobability web surveys 274
12.3 Data, bias description, and PSA 277
12.4 Results 284
12.5 Potentials and constraints of PSA to improve nonprobability web survey quality: Conclusion 286
13 Estimating the effects of nonresponses in online panels through imputation 299
Weiyu Zhang
13.1 Introduction 299
13.2 Method 302
13.3 Measurements 303
13.4 Findings 303
13.5 Discussion and conclusion 308
Part V NONRESPONSE AND MEASUREMENT ERROR 311
Introduction to Part V 312
Anja S. Göritz and Jon A. Krosnick
14 The relationship between nonresponse strategies and measurement error: Comparing online panel surveys to traditional surveys 313
Neil Malhotra, Joanne M. Miller, and Justin Wedeking
14.1 Introduction 313
14.2 Previous research and theoretical overview 314
14.3 Does interview mode moderate the relationship between nonresponse strategies and data quality? 317
14.4 Data 318
14.5 Measures 320
14.6 Results 324
14.7 Discussion and conclusion 332
15 Nonresponse and measurement error in an online panel: Does additional effort to recruit reluctant respondents result in poorer quality data? 337
Caroline Roberts, Nick Allum, and Patrick Sturgis
15.1 Introduction 337
15.2 Understanding the relation between nonresponse and measurement error 338
15.3 Response propensity and measurement error in panel surveys 341
15.4 The present study 342
15.5 Data 343
15.6 Analytical strategy 344
15.7 Results 350
15.8 Discussion and conclusion 357
Part VI SPECIAL DOMAINS 363
Introduction to Part VI 364
Reg Baker and Anja S. Göritz
16 An empirical test of the impact of smartphones on panel-based online data collection 367
Frank Drewes
16.1 Introduction 367
16.2 Method 369
16.3 Results 371
16.4 Discussion and conclusion 385
17 Internet and mobile ratings panels 387
Philip M. Napoli, Paul J. Lavrakas, and Mario Callegaro
17.1 Introduction 387
17.2 History and development of Internet ratings panels 388
17.3 Recruitment and panel cooperation 390
17.4 Compliance and panel attrition 394
17.5 Measurement issues 396
17.6 Long tail and panel size 398
17.7 Accuracy and validation studies 400
17.8 Statistical adjustment and modeling 401
17.9 Representative research 402
17.10 The future of Internet audience measurement 403
Part VII OPERATIONAL ISSUES IN ONLINE PANELS 409
Introduction to Part VII 410
Paul J. Lavrakas and Anja S. Göritz
18 Online panel software 413
Tim Macer
18.1 Introduction 413
18.2 What does online panel software do? 414
18.3 Survey of software providers 415
18.4 A typology of panel research software 416
18.5 Support for the different panel software typologies 417
18.6 The panel database 418
18.7 Panel recruitment and profile data 421
18.8 Panel administration 423
18.9 Member portal 425
18.10 Sample administration 428
18.11 Data capture, data linkage and interoperability 430
18.12 Diagnostics and active panel management 433
18.13 Conclusion and further work 436
19 Validating respondents' identity in online samples: The impact of efforts to eliminate fraudulent respondents 441
Reg Baker, Chuck Miller, Dinaz Kachhi, Keith Lange, Lisa Wilding-Brown, and Jacob Tucker
19.1 Introduction 441
19.2 The 2011 study 443
19.3 The 2012 study 444
19.4 Results 446
19.5 Discussion 449
19.6 Conclusion 450
References 451
Appendix 19.A 452
Index 457
About the Editors
Reg Baker is the former President and Chief Operating Officer of Market Strategies International, a full-service research company specializing in healthcare, energy, financial services, telecommunications, and information technology. Prior to joining Market Strategies, he was Vice President for Research Operations at NORC where he oversaw the national field staff, the company's CATI centers, and its technology infrastructure.
Over the course of his almost 40-year career, Reg has focused on the methodological, operational and management challenges of new survey technologies including CATI, CAPI, Web, and now mobile. He writes, presents and consults on these and related issues to diverse national and international audiences and has worked with a wide variety of clients in both the private and public sectors, including substantial research with academic survey methodologists on web survey methods. He was the Chair of the AAPOR Task Force on Online Panels and Co-Chair of the AAPOR Task Force on Non-Probability Sampling. He serves as a consultant to the ESOMAR Professional Standards Committee and has worked on numerous project teams for that association, producing a variety of quality and ethical guidelines including its “28 Questions to Help Buyers of Online Samples” and its “Guideline for Conducting Mobile Marketing Research.” He also is an adjunct instructor in the Master of Science in Marketing Research Program at Michigan State University and is a member of the Executive Editorial Board of the International Journal of Market Research. He continues to consult with Market Strategies and other private and public organizations, including the U.S. Bureau of the Census.
He blogs off and on as The Survey Geek.
Jelke Bethlehem, PhD, is Senior Advisor in the Methodology Team of the Division of Process Development, IT and Methodology at Statistics Netherlands. He is also Professor of Survey Methodology at Leiden University. He studied mathematical statistics at the University of Amsterdam. His PhD was about nonresponse in surveys. He worked for over 30 years at Statistics Netherlands. His research topics were disclosure control, nonresponse, weighting adjustment, and web surveys. In the 1980s and 1990s he was in charge of the development of Blaise, a software system for computer-assisted survey data collection. He has participated in a number of European research projects financed by the European Union.
Dr. Bethlehem's current research interests include web surveys, computer-assisted survey information collection, and graphical techniques in statistics. He is the author of other books published by Wiley: Applied Survey Methods, Handbook of Nonresponse in Household Surveys and Handbook of Web Surveys.
Mario Callegaro is Survey Research Scientist in the Quantitative Marketing team at Google UK. He works on web survey design and focuses on measuring customer satisfaction. He also consults with numerous internal teams regarding survey design, sampling, questionnaire design, and online survey programming and implementation.
Mario holds a BA in Sociology from the University of Trento, Italy, and an MS and PhD in Survey Research and Methodology from the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Prior to joining Google, Mario was working as survey research scientist for Gfk-Knowledge Networks.
Mario has published over 30 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters and made over 100 conference presentations nationally and internationally in the areas of web surveys, telephone and cell phone surveys; question wording, polling and exit polls; event history calendar; longitudinal surveys, and survey quality. He is associate editor of Survey Research Methods, a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Market Research, and reviewer for other survey research-oriented journals. His latest book entitled Web Survey Methodology (with Katja Lozar Manfreda and Vasja Vehovar) is forthcoming with Sage.
Anja S. Göritz is a Full Professor of Occupational and Consumer Psychology at the University of Freiburg in Germany. Anja holds a graduate degree in Psychology from the University of Leipzig and a PhD in Organizational and Social Psychology from the University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany. Her research focuses on web-based data collection, market psychology and human–computer interaction. She also consults with international clients regarding design, programming and implementation of web surveys.
Anja has taught graduate and post-graduate courses on research methods and web-based data collection. Moreover, she has regularly been an instructor in the Advanced Training Institute “Performing Web-Based Research” of the American Psychological Association. In 2000, she built and has since maintained Germany's first university-based online panel with more than 20000 panelists. Anja programmed a number of open-source tools for web-based data collection and released them into the public domain.
Anja has published over 60 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters and made over 100 presentations at national and international academic conventions. In 2008, she chaired the program of the General Online Research Conference. She is an associate editor of Social Science Computer Review and a member of the editorial board of International Journal of Internet Science.
Jon A. Krosnick is Frederic O. Glover Professor in Humanities and Social Sciences and Professor of Communication, Political Science, and Psychology at Stanford University. A leading international authority on questionnaire design and survey research methods, Professor Krosnick has taught courses for professionals on survey methods for 25 years around the world, and has served as a methodology consultant to government agencies, commercial firms, and academic scholars. His books include Introduction to Survey Research, Polling, and Data Analysis and The Handbook of Questionnaire Design (forthcoming, Oxford University Press), which reviews 100 years of research on how different ways of asking questions can yield different answers from survey respondents and on how to design questions to measure most accurately. His recent research has focused on how other aspects of survey methodology (e.g., collecting data by interviewing face-to-face vs. by telephone or on paper questionnaires) can be optimized to maximize accuracy.
Dr. Krosnick is also a world-recognized expert on the psychology of attitudes, especially in the area of politics. He is co-principal investigator of the American National Election Study, the nation's preeminent academic research project exploring voter decision-making and political campaign effects. For 30 years, Dr. Krosnick has studied how the American public's political attitudes are formed, change, and shape thinking and action. His publications explore the causes of people's decisions about whether to vote, for whom to vote, whether to approve of the President's performance, whether to take action to influence government policy-making on a specific issue, and much more.
Dr. Krosnick's scholarship has been recognized with the Phillip Brickman Memorial Prize, the Pi Sigma Alpha Award, the Erik Erikson Early Career Award for Excellence and Creativity, a fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, and membership as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
As an expert witness in court, he has testified evaluating the quality of surveys presented as evidence by opposing counsel and has conducted original survey research to inform courts in cases involving unreimbursed expenses, uncompensated overtime work, exempt/non-exempt misclassification, patent/trademark violation, health effects of accidents, consequences of being misinformed about the results of standardized academic tests, economic valuation of environmental damage, change of venue motions, and other topics.
At Stanford, Dr. Krosnick directs the Political Psychology Research Group (PPRG). PPRG is a cross-disciplinary team of scholars who conduct empirical studies of the psychology of political behavior and studies seeking to optimize research methodology for studying political psychology. The group's studies employ a wide range of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and content analysis, and the group often conducts collaborative research studies with leading news media organizations, including ABC News, The Associated Press, the Washington Post, and Time Magazine. Support for the group's work has come from U.S. Government agencies (e.g., the National Science Foundation, the Bureau of Labor Statistics), private foundations (e.g., the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation), and Institutes at Stanford (e.g., the Woods Institute for the Environment). Dr. Krosnick also directs the Summer Institute in Political Psychology, an annual event that brings 60 students and professionals from around the world to Stanford for intensive training in political psychology theory and methods.
Paul J. Lavrakas, PhD, a research psychologist, is a methodological research consultant for several private sector and not-for-profit organizations, and also does select volunteer service projects. He also is a Visiting Scholar, teaching research method courses, at Northern Arizona University.
He was a Nielsen Vice President and their chief methodologist (2000–2007); Professor of Journalism/Communications (Northwestern, 1978–1996; Ohio State, 1996–2000); and founding...
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