CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVES

The goal of this book is to provide information and methods that can be used to estimate the probability of ignition for flammable gas and liquid releases to the external environment. This book and the accompanying software tools discuss technical material that the user should be familiar with prior to use. This book is intended for an audience of engineers and/or scientists who have experience with process safety and risk management systems.

The algorithms that are developed in this book are presented at different levels of sophistication to accommodate a wide range of users, including people in a process hazard analysis team who want an objective but crude prediction for risk ranking purposes or people performing quantitative risk assessments and developing relatively complex risk mitigation plans. Users can adopt the level of complexity and accuracy needed for their particular application with a commensurate level of effort in data input.

The scope of this book is limited to flammable gases, mists, and liquids. The designed application is for onshore facilities, although it may be possible to extend it to offshore applications if the user is able to properly account for the inherent differences between the two settings. This book specifically excludes the treatment of ignitable dusts for various reasons, not the least of which are: (a) the magnitude and physicochemical characteristics of dust clouds are very difficult to quantify for a given situation, particularly for dust “disturbance” events (in which accumulated dust dislodges from the tops of equipment and support structures) and (b) ignition probability data for dust ignitions are very limited at this time.

1.2 MOTIVATION FOR THIS BOOK

Up until the 1990s, many companies maintained groups of process safety specialists whose experience and expertise in different areas allowed in-house problem solving. Often, companies not only maintained safety test laboratories but performed safety research as well. Unfortunately, as safety technology has advanced it has become more complicated and difficult for most companies to apply. This book is intended to assist in-house risk analysts in one of the most difficult areas—estimating the probability of ignition of a given vapor cloud.

The motivation for this book is to achieve the following three primary outcomes:

• A standardized methodology for estimating probability of ignition that is open-source and can be applied consistently across the process industry
• Methods and tools that allow a user to estimate ignition probability quickly
• Ability to account for mitigation measures that reduce ignition probability

On the last bullet above, it is desired that a tool be able to address as many of the elements of the “fire triangle” as possible. In fact, the methods can address all sides of the triangle to varying degrees, but none completely, and all resulting in reductions in ignition probability rather than elimination of ignition altogether.

1.2.1 A Brief History of Fire Protection

Many catastrophic accidents in the process industries have resulted from the ignition of a flammable mass that was released into the environment. For this reason, safety professionals and regulators have continually sought methods to reduce the frequency of such events, and various approaches have been undertaken to accomplish this. Before the implementation of industry standards and codes, professionals used their individual and/or collective knowledge of past events and fire fundamentals to mitigate such events. Even in ancient Rome, the Emperor Nero developed regulations for fire protection after the city burned in A.D. 64. The Roman regulations included requirements for fire-resistant building materials and the use of separation distances, concepts that are still in use today.

The evolution from this knowledge-based approach into a series of industry-driven standards and codes occurred in order to share knowledge of flammable hazard management and to introduce standardized methods for dealing with flammable hazards. Not surprisingly, the nascent insurance industry of the nineteenth century promoted this initial effort, and various professional organizations were created in the twentieth century such as the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE), and others in the U.S. and overseas. These organizations were instrumental in developing the field of flammables management.

The science of ignitions in the petroleum, chemical, and other industries developed in parallel. Klinkenberg and van der Minne (1958) provide references on static electricity in the industry that date back to the 1910s, The U.S. Bureau of Mines had a leading role in progressing knowledge in this area in the same time frame. Through these efforts and contributions by others in industry, advancements in both the theory and experimental support for these phenomena were made through the middle of the twentieth century.

As the chemical and petrochemical industries matured and grew, the potential for fires and explosions of ever-greater magnitudes also grew, and some tragic events such as those in Flixborough, Piper Alpha, Mexico City, and Pasadena drove regulators to become more intimately involved in the management of flammable hazards. In the U.S., the promulgation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s “Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals” standard in 1992 set the stage for the regulation of such hazards, although the standard is largely built on and refers to the industry efforts that preceded it.

1.2.2 The Development of Risk-Based Approaches to Flammables Management

The most recent evolution of flammables management is the use of risk-based approaches. In a risk-based approach, the expected frequency of a fire or explosion is quantified and combined with the predicted outcome of the fire/explosion to determine the risk of a potential hazard. To some extent, this evolution has been driven by the increasing availability of the computing power required to perform detailed analyses for thousands of scenario combinations that can be present in a modern process industry facility. This was also coincident with a rise of risk-based “culture” and risk-based regulations in Europe in particular.

The development of the quantified risk-based methodologies in recent years has been accompanied by tremendous advancements in the theory, tools, and software available to predict the consequences of fires and explosions. Although the methods for consequence analysis continue to improve, one can argue that the methods for consequence analysis are fairly mature and thus address half of the “risk equation”:

Risk = f(Consequence, Frequency)

or, in terms familiar to practitioners of layers of protection analysis:

Risk = Consequence x Frequency/Risk Reduction Factors

The frequency side of the risk equation seems simpler conceptually and does not need to invoke Gaussian plume or computational fluid dynamics or other relatively higher mathematical solutions. In spite of this, or possibly because of this, the frequency of events has been a relatively neglected science. Now that is changing; because some regulators (mainly outside North America) require companies to perform quantified risk assessments, the regulators themselves have started to undertake standardization of frequency inputs to such studies. For example, some risk analysts are required to use specific values for the frequency of a leak of size X from a pressure vessel. While there is broad consensus on the values of many of these numbers in a “generic” situation, some inputs such as ignition probabilities are very situation-specific and so should be handled with greater rigor in many situations than is generally practiced.

Improvements to previous frequency/risk calculation methods are also timely given that the American Petroleum Institute (API) Recommended Practice 752 on building siting (API, 2009) permits use of risk as a basis for making building and personnel location decisions. Since the risk calculation for flammable events invariably incorporates a probability of ignition, greater precision and consistency in estimating this value are needed to ensure that risk assessments are both technically accurate and performed consistently across industry. Among other purposes, this book is therefore intended to provide new tools for users to comply with this API recommended practice and can be considered as a companion document to the CCPS book Guidelines for Evaluating Process Plant Buidings for External Explosions, Fires, and Toxic Releases (CCPS, 2012) as well as a supplemental resource for the CCPS book Guidelines for Enabling Conditions and Conditional Modifiers in Layer of Protection Analysis (CCPS, 2013).

1.2.3 Difficulties in Developing Ignition Probability Prediction Methods

From a mathematical point of view, determining ignition probabilities would seem to be a straightforward problem to solve—simply collect information or perform tests on events where flammables have been released and document the instances in which an ignition took place. However, the execution of this strategy is problematic from multiple perspectives, discussed next.

1.2.3.1 Data Bias

The simplest form of data analysis to develop ignition probability predictions is the following:

Probability of Ignition = Observed Ignitions/Observed Flammable Releases

There are numerous cases in which an event that resulted in a major fire or explosion has been documented in some form...