Smart Grid
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About the Author xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xxiii
Acronyms xxv
Part One ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS: THE MAIN COMPONENT
1 Introduction to Power Systems Before Smart Grid 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Yesterday's Grid 8
1.3 Fundamentals of Electric Power 20
1.4 Case Studies: Postmortem Analysis of Blackouts 34
1.5 Drivers Toward the Smart Grid 42
1.6 Goals of the Smart Grid 43
1.7 A Few Words on Standards 46
1.8 From Energy and Information to Smart Grid and Communications 47
1.9 Summary 48
1.10 Exercises 50
2 Generation 55
2.1 Introduction to Generation 55
2.2 Centralized Generation 57
2.3 Management and Control: Introducing Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems 73
2.4 Energy Storage 81
2.5 Summary 85
2.6 Exercises 86
3 Transmission 89
3.1 Introduction 89
3.2 Basic Power Grid Components 93
3.3 Classical Power Grid Analytical Techniques 98
3.4 Transmission Challenges 110
3.5 Wireless Power Transmission 118
3.6 Summary 118
3.7 Exercises 119
4 Distribution 121
4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Protection Techniques 138
4.3 Conservation Voltage Reduction 145
4.4 Distribution Line Carrier 146
4.5 Summary 147
4.6 Exercises 147
5 Consumption 151
5.1 Introduction 151
5.2 Loads 152
5.3 Variability in Consumption 168
5.4 The Consumer Perspective 169
5.5 Visibility 171
5.6 Flexibility for the Consumer 176
5.7 Summary 179
5.8 Exercises 180
Part Two COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING: THE ENABLER
6 What is Smart Grid Communication? 185
6.1 Introduction 185
6.2 Energy and Information 192
6.3 System View 198
6.4 Power System Information Theory 199
6.5 Communication Architecture 216
6.6 Wireless Communication Introduction 224
6.7 Summary 232
6.8 Exercises 233
7 Demand-Response and the Advanced Metering Infrastructure 235
7.1 Introduction 235
7.2 Demand-Response 236
7.3 Advanced Metering Infrastructure 239
7.4 IEEE 802.15.4, 6LoWPAN, ROLL, and RPL 244
7.5 IEEE 802.11 255
7.6 Summary 256
7.7 Exercises 257
8 Distributed Generation and Transmission 259
8.1 Introduction 259
8.2 Distributed Generation 260
8.3 The Smart Power Transmission System 276
8.4 Wireless Power Transmission 278
8.5 Wide-Area Monitoring 281
8.6 Networked Control 294
8.7 Summary 298
8.8 Exercises 298
9 Distribution Automation 301
9.1 Introduction 301
9.2 Protection Coordination Utilizing Distribution Automation 306
9.3 Self-healing, Communication, and Distribution Automation 309
9.4 Summary 329
9.5 Exercises 329
10 Standards Overview 333
10.1 Introduction 333
10.2 National Institute of Standards and Technology 334
10.3 International Electrotechnical Commission 335
10.4 International Council on Large Electric Systems 339
10.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 339
10.6 American National Standards Institute 343
10.7 International Telecommunication Union 347
10.8 Electric Power Research Institute 348
10.9 Other Standardization-Related Activities 349
10.10 Summary 353
10.11 Exercises 354
Part Three EMBEDDED AND DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENCE FOR A SMARTER GRID: THE ULTIMATE GOAL
11 Machine Intelligence in the Grid 359
11.1 Introduction 359
11.2 Machine Intelligence and Communication 360
11.3 Computing Models for Smart Grid 364
11.4 Machine Intelligence in the Grid 373
11.5 Machine-to-Machine Communication in Smart Grid 383
11.6 Summary 385
11.7 Exercises 386
12 State Estimation and Stability 389
12.1 Introduction 389
12.2 Networked Control 396
12.3 State Estimation 397
12.4 Distributed State Estimation 399
12.5 Stability 402
12.6 Stability and High-Penetration Distributed Generation 410
12.7 Summary 411
12.8 Exercises 412
13 Synchrophasor Applications 415
13.1 Introduction 415
13.2 Synchrophasors 416
13.3 Phasor Measurement Unit 426
13.4 Networking Synchrophasor Information 427
13.5 Synchrophasor Applications 430
13.6 Summary 431
13.7 Exercises 432
14 Power System Electronics 435
14.1 Introduction 435
14.2 Power System Electronics 437
14.3 Power Electronic Transformer 443
14.4 Protection Devices and Current Limiters 452
14.5 Superconducting Technologies 453
14.6 Summary 460
14.7 Exercises 461
15 Future of the Smart Grid 465
15.1 Introduction 465
15.2 Geomagnetic Storms as Generators 468
15.3 Future Microgrids 472
15.4 Nanoscale Communication Networks 476
15.5 Emerging Technologies 480
15.6 Near-Space Power Generation 482
15.7 Summary 484
15.8 Exercises 487
Appendix: Smart Grid Simulation Tools 489
References 493
Index 507
Acronyms
6LoWPAN IPv6 over low-power wireless personal area networks ACE area control error ACFFI average communication failure frequency index ACIDI average communication interruption duration index ACK acknowledgment ACO ant colony optimization ACSE association control service element ACSR aluminum conductor steel-reinforced cable ADA advanced distribution automation ADI advanced distribution infrastructure ADP adaptive dynamic programming AGC automatic grid control AHP analytical hierarchical programming AIEE American Institute of Electrical Engineers AMI advanced metering infrastructure AMR automated meter reading ANSI American National Standards Institute AODV ad hoc on-demand distance-vector APDU application protocol data unit API application program interface ARQ automatic repeat-request ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASK amplitude-shift keying ASN.1 abstract syntax notation 1 ATM asynchronous transfer mode BAN body-area network BAS building automation system BCS Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer BE best-effort BFSK binary frequency-shift keying BMC best master clock BPL broadband over power line BPSK binary phase-shift keying BS base station CA contingency analysis CAES compressed air energy storage CAIDI customer average interruption duration index CAIFI customer average interruption frequency index CAN controller-area network CBR constant-bit rate CC control center CCITT Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) CID connection identifier CIGRE Conseil International des Grands Reseaux Electriques (International Council on Large Electric Systems) CIM common information model ComSoc IEEE Communications Society COSEM companion specification for energy metering CRC cyclic redundancy checksum CSM common signaling mode CSMA carrier-sense multiple-access CSMA-CA carrier-sense multiple-access with collision avoidance CSMA-CD carrier-sense multiple-access with collision detection CT current transformer CTAIDI customer total average interruption duration index CVR conservation voltage reduction CVT constant voltage transformer DA distribution automation DAG directed acyclic graph DAU data aggregation unit DCF distribution coordination function DCT discrete cosine transform DESS distribution energy storage system DG distributed generation DHP dual heuristic programming dielectric DIO DODAG information object DLMS device language message specification DMI distribution management infrastructure DMS distribution management system DNP distributed network protocol DNP3 distributed network protocol 3 DODAG destination-oriented directed acyclic graph DR demand-response DSL digital subscriber line DSM demand-side management DSP digital signal processor DSSS direct-sequence spread-spectrum DVR dynamic voltage restorer EDFA erbium-doped fiber-optic amplifier EHV extra-high voltage EIA United States Energy Information Agency EMC electromagnetic compatibility EMF electromotive force EMS energy management system ENS-C energy not served due to communication failure EPRI Electric Power Research Institute EPS electric power system ertPS extended-real-time-polling service ESI energy services interface ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute EPSEM extended protocol specification for electronic metering FACTS flexible alternating current transmission system FAN field-area network FCL fault current limiter FCS frame check sequence FDIR fault detection, isolation, and restoration FDM frequency-division multiplexing FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission FET field-effect transistor FFD full function device FFT fast Fourier transform FHSS frequency-hopping spread-spectrum FN false-negative isolated fault segment vector FSK frequency-shift keying GenCo generating company GFCI ground-fault circuit interrupter GIC geomagnetically induced current GIS geographic information system GOOSE generic object-oriented substation events GPS global positioning system HAN home-area network HART highway addressable remote transducer HDP heuristic dynamic programming HEMP high-altitude electromagnetic pulse HMAC keyed-hash message authentication code HTS high-temperature superconductor HTS-ISM high-temperature superconducting induction-synchronous machine HVDC high-voltage direct-current IAE integral absolute error ICCP inter-control center communications protocol ICT information and communications technology IE information element IEC International Electrotechnical...