Students' Guide to Programming Languages

Preface1: Why Study Programming Languages? Why Should We Study Programming Languages? Programming Languages and the End-User Programming Languages and the Systems Analyst Programming Languages and the Programmer2: What are Programming Languages? The Development of Computers Machine Code Instruction Set Why Have Only a Small Instruction Set? Logical Operations Comparison and Branching Instruction Format Assembly Code Assembler Data Names Labels Macros Stored Programs Subroutines Subroutines in Practice Another Processor Third Generation Languages Thinking of a Solution Compiler Ease of Use Portability Fourth Generation Languages What is a Fourth Generation Language? Different Instruction Sets Other Instruction Sets Binary Operations Logical Operations Data Format Arithmetic Operations Indexing Immediate Instructions Flags and Testing Input and Output Interpreting Compiling, Linking and Loading Linking and Loading Executing What Do We Want of a Programming Language?3: Data and Data Types Types of Data Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal Converting Decimal Numbers to Binary Performing Binary Addition Representing Other Data Hexadecimal Notation Binary / Decimal / Hexadecimal Data Types Character Data Type Other Character Sets Escape Sequences Strings of Characters Strings Integer / Fixed Data Type Negative Integer Numbers Internal / External Format Fractions Very Large Numbers Real Numbers Floating Point Numbers Normalized Numbers Real Numbers in Storage Single-Precision and Double-Precision E-Notation Packed Decimal Boolean Data Type Data Types in Programming Languages Data Types in Basic Data Types in Ada Data Types in APL Data Types in Cobol Data Types in Fortran Data Types in Pascal Data Types in PL/1 Data Types in C Type Checking Arrays Subscripts Working with Arrays Homogeneous Arrays Arrays with Several Dimensions Records Enumerated Data Types Implementing Enumerated Data Types Pointers Linked Lists Set Types4: Abstract Data Types - Adts What Do We Mean By Data Type? An Abstract Data Type A Simple Abstract Data Type ADT: Queue Possible Implementations Specifying an ADT Specifying an Operation Formal Specifications The Specification of the ADT: Queue Implementing an ADT Constraints during Implementation Information Hiding5: Programming Structure and Structures Structured Programming Program Structures Sequence Assignment Statements Arithmetic Calculations Selection Logical Expressions Iteration Surface Structures Surface Structures in Structured English Surface Structures in C Surface Structures in Cobol Surface Structures in Fortran Surface Structures in Pascal Exception Conditions Handling Exception Conditions Tree Diagrams Modular Programming Functions or Subroutines? Internal Processing Modules External Processing Modules Functions Arguments Scope Calling a Module Common Data Labeled Common Using COMMON Data6: Specifying a Programming Language Specifying a Language Recursive Rules BNF: Backus-Naur Form Deriving a Sentence from a Grammar Parsing EBNF: Extended Backus-Naur Form More EBNF Symbols Syntax Diagrams Recursion in Syntax Diagrams Context-Free Grammars Semantics Specification by Narrative Description Specification by Example Specification by Substitution7: Specifying Functions Specifying Functions Sets Is a Member of Operations on Sets Union Difference Intersection Writing the Members of a Set Primitive Types in For