
Economics of Education
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Content
- Front Cover
- Economics of Education
- Copyright Page
- Preface
- Contributors
- Contents
- I. OVERVIEW
- Theoretical Concepts in the Economics of Education
- Economics Defined
- Human Capital
- Markets and Market Failure
- Education Production
- Concluding Thoughts
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Empirical Research Methods in the Economics of Education
- Common Research Terms
- Methods for Answering Causal Questions
- Statistical Controls for Observed Variables
- Regression analysis
- Propensity score matching
- Randomized Assignment
- Discontinuity Assignment
- Instrumental Variables
- Difference-in-Differences
- Combining Methods to Improve Causal Inference
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Data in the Economics of Education
- Overview
- National Data Systems
- CCD and SASS Databases
- NAEP Assessment Data
- National Longitudinal Studies: NLS-72, HS and B, NELS: 88, and ELS: 2002
- Crime and Safety Surveys
- Accessibility
- State and School District Databases
- The National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research
- Florida
- Texas
- New York
- North Carolina
- Missouri
- Washington
- Other State and District Administrative Databases
- Chicago
- Arizona
- California
- Other states
- International Data Systems
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- II. THE PRIVATE AND SOCIAL RETURNS TO HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
- Human Capital
- Private Returns to Education
- Theoretical Issues and Modeling
- Empirical Estimates and Methodology
- Topics in Empirical Estimation
- Primary and secondary education
- Post-secondary education
- On-the-job training and work experience
- Nonmonetary Returns to Education
- Social Returns to Education
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Signaling in the Labor Market
- Empirical Evidence
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Returns to Education in Developed Countries
- Introduction
- Estimating Returns to Education via Schooling Equations
- Basic Schooling Equation
- Hourly Wages versus Measures That Include Hours of Work
- Measurement Error in Schooling
- Ability Bias, Omitted Variables, and Selection Bias
- Include proxy measures of ability
- Twin studies
- Natural experiments based mainly on features of the education system
- Heterogeneous Returns
- Annual Returns, Signaling, and Sheepskin Effects
- Trends and Some International Evidence
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Returns to Education in Developing Countries
- Earnings Differentials by Education
- Returns to Education
- Causality
- Cognitive Ability
- Conclusions and Policy Considerations
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- School Quality and Earnings
- Estimation Methods Typically Used
- Methodological Weaknesses
- Summary of Findings
- Testing for a Significant Relation between School Resources and Earnings
- Results for US women and workers in the United Kingdom
- Estimating the Size of the Relation Between School Resources and Earnings
- Explanations for Variations in Results
- Age Dependence
- Structural Changes?
- Specific Problems Potentially Afflicting State-Level and School-Level Studies
- Issues That Require Further Research
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Education and Economic Growth
- Initial Evidence on the Quality of Education and Economic Growth
- Recent Evidence on the Importance of Cognitive Skills for Economic Growth
- The Interaction of Educational Quality with Economic Institutions
- Simulating the Impact of Educational Reform on Economic Growth
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- The External Benefits of Education
- Distinguishing Private Market, Private Nonmarket, and Social Benefits
- The Market Benefits of Education
- The Private Nonmarket Benefits of Education
- The External Social Benefits of Education
- The Indirect Effects from Education
- Why Are Indirect Effects Externalities?
- The Evidence: Identifying and Valuing the External Social Benefits
- The Value of the Direct Nonmarket Public Benefits of Education
- Evidence Concerning Specific External Social Benefits
- Democratization
- Human rights
- Political stability
- Life expectancy
- Reduced inequality and lower poverty
- Lower crime rates
- Lower public health, welfare, and prison costs
- Increased tax receipts
- Environmental benefits
- Happiness and social capital
- Dissemination of technology
- The Value of External Indirect Effects
- The Total Value of Education's External Benefits
- Studies of Aggregate Externalities
- Implications
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Education and Health
- Overview of Causal Relationships
- Health, Education, and Poverty
- Stress
- Social Standing
- Social Deprivation
- Behavioral Risk Factors
- Genetic Risk Factors
- Health Insurance
- Enhanced Cognitive Ability
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Education and Civic Engagement
- Comparisons of Public and Private Schools
- Summary and Future Directions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Education and Crime
- Introduction
- The Economics of Education and Crime
- The Effects of Education on Subsequent Crime Among Adults
- Contemporaneous Crime and Education Decisions Among Youth
- Empirical Evidence on Crime and Education
- The Effects of Education on Crime
- The Effects of Arrest and Incarceration on Education
- Education and Training in Prison
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Education and Inequality*
- Introduction
- Inequalities in Educational Outcomes
- Inequalities by Social Background
- Inequalities by Race, Ethnicity, and Immigrant Status
- Inequalities by Gender
- Education and Economic Outcomes
- Causality
- Wider Benefits of Education
- Changes over Time
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Race Earnings Differentials
- Race and Ethnic Earnings Differences in the United States
- A Model for Explaining Earnings Differences
- Explaining Earnings Differences with Cross-Section Data
- Earnings Differences for Minority Women
- Do Ability/Educational Quality Differences Explain Race/Ethnic Earnings Differences?
- What Are the Sources of the Black/White Test-Score Gap?
- Explaining Changes in Earnings Differences over Time
- Comparing Results for Brazil and Israel
- Bibliography
- The Economics of High School Dropouts
- Who Drops Out of High School?
- What Are the Consequences?
- Why Do Students Drop Out?
- Individual Factors
- Institutional Factors
- Families
- Schools
- Community and peers
- What Can Be Done?
- Programmatic Approaches
- Systemic Solutions
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- III. THE PRODUCTION, COSTS AND FINANCING OF EDUCATION
- Education Production Functions: Concepts
- Introduction
- Production Function Models and Assumptions
- Basic Assumptions
- Additional Common Assumptions
- EPFs and Accountability
- Evidence on the Assumptions of the EPF
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Education Production Functions: Evidence from Developed Countries
- Overview
- Measured School Inputs
- Study Quality
- Benefits and Costs
- Do Teachers and Schools Matter?
- Some Conclusions and Implications
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Education Production Functions: Evidence from Developing Countries
- Introduction
- The Education Production Function
- Estimation of Production Functions
- Omitted Variable Bias
- Selection and Attrition Bias
- Endogenous Program Placement Bias
- Measurement Error Bias
- Methods to Reduce or Remove Bias
- Evidence from Developing Countries
- Education in Developing Countries
- Demand Interventions
- Supply Policies
- Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research
- Acknowledgment
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Family Environment in the Production of Schooling
- Health Influences on Achievement
- Housing and Student Mobility
- Income and Wealth Differences that Influence Achievement
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Parental Socioeconomic Status, Child Health, and Human Capital
- Introduction
- Does Parental Socioeconomic Status Affect Child Health?
- External Benefits of Parental SES
- Evidence
- Correlation
- Causation
- Does Child Health Affect Future Outcomes?
- Possible Channels
- Evidence
- Conditions in utero
- Birth weight
- Nutrition
- Mental health
- Asthma
- Acute illnesses
- Environmental toxins
- Can Health Account for Gaps in Children's Educational Outcomes?
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Neighborhoods and Peers in the Production of Schooling
- Evidence on Neighborhoods
- Evidence on Schoolmates and Classmates
- Discussion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Desegregation, Academic Achievement, and Earnings
- Supreme Court Decisions and Desegregation Methods
- Trends in School Enrolment Patterns: 1968-2000
- Desegregation and White Enrolment Decline
- Desegregation Program Effects on Academic and Economic Outcomes
- Methodological Issues
- Summary of Results
- Bibliography
- Teacher Quality in Education Production
- What Is Teacher Quality?
- Teacher Experience
- Teacher Certification
- Degree Level and Subject-Matter Preparation
- Teacher Ability
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Class Size
- Why Class Size Might Matter
- Empirical Approaches to Studying the Impact of Class Size
- Nonexperimental Research
- Experimental Research
- Checks for Randomization
- Achievement Results
- Additional Caveats
- Quasi-Experimental Research
- Policy-Induced Variation
- Discussion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Early Childhood Interventions
- Outline placeholder
- Market Failures
- Equity and Redistribution
- Types of Early Childhood Interventions
- Cognitive and Academic Outcomes
- Noncognitive Outcomes
- Indirect Effects
- Female Labor Supply
- Intergenerational Effects
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
- Economic Evaluation of Education
- Methodology
- Measuring Costs
- Benefits and Effects
- Examples of Applications
- Cost-benefit analysis
- Further application of CBA
- Cost-effectiveness analysis
- Further application of CEA
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Economic Approaches to Adequacy
- Measuring the Costs of Adequacy
- Cost-Function Estimation
- Variables and Functional Form
- Efficiency
- Estimation Methods
- Data Requirements
- Cost-Function Results
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Economic Approaches to School Efficiency
- Efficiency in an Education Context
- Econometric Approaches
- Data Envelopment Analysis
- Stochastic Frontier Analysis
- Corrected OLS
- Specifications and Measurement
- School Outputs
- School Inputs
- Environmental Factors
- Findings Regarding School Efficiency
- The Determinants of School Inefficiency
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- School Finance: An Overview
- Introduction
- School Finance in Context
- Raising Revenue: Multiple and Evolving Roles
- Distributing Resources: Multiple and Competing Goals
- Mechanisms for Distributing Revenue across School Districts
- Equity and Adequacy
- Efficiency
- Utilization of Resources: Current Policy Issues for School Finance
- Teacher Compensation
- Special Education
- Expanding the Scope of Education
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- School Finance Reform
- Introduction
- Effects of School Finance Reforms on Spending
- Impact of Reforms on the Distribution and Level of Spending
- How Are Additional Dollars Spent?
- Impact of School Finance Reform on Student Performance
- Other Effects of School Finance Reforms
- Spending on Other Public Services after Finance Reforms
- Finance Reforms and Community Composition
- Housing Prices and Finance Reforms
- Do Finance Reforms Lead to Shifts of Enrollment to Private Schools?
- Finance Reforms and Private Contributions to Public Schools
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Tuition and Fees in American Higher Education
- Introduction
- Tuition Keeps Rising in Private Higher Education
- Tuition Keeps Rising at Public Institutions
- Graduate and Professional Program Tuition and Fees
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- IV. TEACHERS AND TEACHER LABOR MARKETS
- Teacher Labor Markets: An Overview
- Teacher Labor Markets
- Methodological Issues
- Looking Ahead
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Teachers in Developing Countries
- Teacher Labor Markets in Developing Countries: Stylized Facts
- Teacher Salary Levels: Mixed Evidence on Adequacy
- Teacher Salary Characteristics: High Rigidity and Fiscal Cost
- Poor Working Conditions
- Teacher Entry and Assignment: Challenges for Quality and Equity
- Inadequate Teacher Management
- Teacher Policies and Their Effects
- Teacher Pay
- School-Based Management
- Alternatives to Hiring Regular Teachers
- Teacher Training
- Some Lessons from Research on Teacher Policy in Developing Countries
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Teacher Supply
- The Labor Market for Teachers
- The Demand for Teachers
- The Supply of Teachers
- Teachers' Pay
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Economic Approaches to Teacher Recruitment and Retention
- The Supply of Teachers
- Wages
- Working Conditions
- Psychic Benefits and Costs
- School Location
- Barriers to Entry
- The Demand for Teachers
- Student Enrolment and Teacher Retirement
- Reduction in Student-to-Teacher Ratios
- Hiring Processes
- Institutional Constraints
- Recruitment and Retention Policies to Date
- Partnerships Between Districts and Local Colleges
- Monetary Incentives
- Changes in Entry Requirements
- Teacher Induction and Mentoring
- Performance-Based Pay
- Career Differentiation Through Ladders
- Improving Hiring Practices
- Reform of Due Process
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Compensating Differentials in Teacher Labor Markets
- Background
- Early Efforts
- Purchasing Power of the Educational Dollar and Hedonic Wage Model
- Empirical Estimates of Compensating Differentials across the US
- Correlations over Time
- Analysis of Differences between Public and Private Schools
- Problems with the Hedonic Wage Model
- Regional Factors and the Comparable Wage Index
- Measuring Teacher Quality
- Interpretation of Cost Factors
- Teacher Quality and Fixed-Effects Models
- Flexible Wages and the Nature of the Labor Market
- Location as a Factor
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Teacher Incentives
- Teacher Incentives
- Background on Incentive Programs
- Advantages of Incentive Programs
- Individual Incentives
- Efficiency and productivity
- Recruitment and retention of qualified teachers
- Group Incentives
- Efficiency and productivity
- Summary of Key Findings
- Disadvantages and Criticisms
- Adverse and Unintended Consequences of Teacher Incentive Programs
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Teachers Unions in the United States
- Introduction
- A Brief History of Teachers' Unions in the United States
- An Overview of Laws Regulating Teachers' Unions in the United States
- Theoretical Ways in Which Teachers' Unions May Enhance or Detract from Education
- Ways in Which Unions May Positively Impact School Districts
- Unions improve teacher quality by increasing teachers' well-being
- Unions allow teachers to focus on teaching
- Unions improve information flows
- Unions increase efficiency of resource use
- Unions stabilize school districts
- Unions correct a market failure in the education marketplace
- Ways in Which Unions May Negatively Impact School Districts
- Unions decrease efficient allocation of resources
- Unions disrupt incentives for teacher performance
- Unions reduce communities' social welfare
- Unions drive wedges between teachers and districts
- Unions threaten democratic processes
- The Impact of Unions on District Outcomes: Evidence from Empirical Literature
- The Relationship between Teachers' Unions and Teachers' Pay
- The Relationship between Teachers' Unions and Student-Teacher Ratios
- The Relationship between Teachers' Unions and Other Working Conditions
- The Relationship between Teachers' Unions and School District Spending
- The Relationship between Teachers' Unions and Student Achievement
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Teacher Training and Preparation in the United States
- Introduction
- Current Licensing Methods
- Research on Teacher Training and Licensing
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- V. EDUCATION MARKETS, CHOICE AND INCENTIVES
- The Economic Role of the State in Education
- Constructing Education Systems
- Economics and the State's Role
- Is Education a Public Good?
- Market Failure in the Market for Education
- Externalities
- Information asymmetry
- Uncertainty and risk aversion
- Economies of scale
- Equity and Equal Opportunity
- Critique of State Provision
- Public Choice and Government Failure
- Inefficiency in production
- Inequity in opportunities and outcomes
- Standardization and enforced mediocrity
- Rent-seeking and corruption
- A Role for the State?
- Education and the Shrinking State
- Bibliography
- Educational Privatization
- Privatization of Different School Types
- Privatization of School Services
- Financing Education and Privatization
- Evaluating Educational Privatization
- Evaluating Educational Privatization Approaches
- Tools of Educational Privatization
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Tiebout Sorting and Competition
- Tiebout Sorting and the Rationing of School Inputs
- Tiebout Competition to Enhance Productive Efficiency
- A Partial Divorce between Competition and Tiebout
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Catholic Schools
- Introduction
- Overview
- History and Enrolment
- Teachers
- Students
- Location
- Tuition and Costs
- Market Served
- School Practices
- Vouchers
- Catholic Schools in Other Countries
- Demand
- Effects
- Academic Achievement and Educational Attainment
- Bad Behavior
- Civic Participation and Altruism
- Economic Effects
- Other Effects
- The Effect of Catholic School Attendance in Other Countries
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Competition and Student Performance
- Concepts and Empirical Background
- Competition Associated with the Presence of Private Schools
- Competition Among Public Schools
- Lessons from Research Using Non-US Data
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- The Economics of Charter Schools
- Introduction
- Policy Questions
- What Types of Students Do Charter Schools Serve?
- Are Charter and Traditional Schools Receiving Comparable Funding?
- How Do Charter Schools Affect the Performance of Charter Students?
- Is Charter School Competition Improving the Performance of Traditional Public Schools?
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- The Economics of Parental Choice
- The Basic Economics of Parental Choice
- Choice among Alternative Types of Schools
- Empirical Evidence on What Parents Care about
- School Demographics
- Academic Performance
- Location
- School Atmosphere: Safety, Discipline, Values, Class Size, and Friends
- Does Parental Choice Vary by Income and Ability of Parents? Or Is There Evidence of Sorting by Income and Ability?
- The Role of Information
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- The Efficacy of Educational Vouchers**
- Introduction
- Structure of Voucher Plans
- Domestic Voucher Programs
- Publicly Funded Programs
- The Milwaukee voucher program
- The Cleveland voucher program
- Other publicly funded voucher programs
- Domestic, Privately Funded Programs
- International Voucher Programs
- Colombia PACES Program
- Chile
- Summary and Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- The Economics of School Accountability
- The Rationale for School-Based Accountability
- Designing School Accountability Systems
- The Evidence on Student Achievement
- Evidence on Unintended Consequences
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Student Incentives
- Conceptual and Empirical Issues
- Incentives to Increase Student Effort and Performance
- Standards-Based Accountability
- Evidence
- Student Financial Incentives
- Evidence
- Teacher Financial Incentives
- Evidence
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Subject Index
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