Disaster Risk Reduction for the Built Environment
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Content
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xix
Note on the Authors xxi
Foreword xxiii
Acknowledgements xxv
List of Acronyms xxvii
List of Case Studies xxxi
List of Thinking Points xxxiii
Section I Introduction to Book and Concepts 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 So what is a Disaster? 4
1.2 What are the Hazards and Threats? 4
1.3 Climate Change and Disasters 5
1.4 Impacts of Disasters Globally 9
1.5 Trends in the Occurrence of Disasters 11
1.6 Economic Losses 13
1.7 The Potential Roles of the Construction Sector in DRR 16
1.8 Scope of the Book 16
1.9 Structure of the Book 17
References and Suggested Reading 17
2 Disaster Risk Reduction 21
2.1 Learning Objectives 21
2.2 Key DRR Concepts and Terms 21
2.3 International Approaches to DRR 26
2.3.1 Milestones in History of DRR 26
2.3.2 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 29
2.3.3 'Making Cities Resilient' Campaign 31
2.4 Community Resilience 32
2.5 Risk Management 34
2.5.1 Phases of Disaster Risk Management 34
2.5.2 Risk Management Elements 37
2.5.3 Existing Guidance 40
2.6 Summary 43
Further Reading 43
Section II Hydro-Meteorological Hazards 45
3 Flooding 47
3.1 Learning Objectives 47
3.2 Living with Water 47
3.3 Overview of the Typical Impacts of Floods 49
3.4 Causes of Flooding 50
3.5 Riverine Floods 51
3.6 Coastal Floods 52
3.7 Flash Floods 55
3.8 Urban (Pluvial) Floods 56
3.9 Risk Management 56
3.9.1 Historical Approaches 56
3.10 Hazard Identification 59
3.11 Assessment of the Vulnerabilities 61
3.11.1 Appropriate Uses 62
3.12 Determination of the Risk 63
3.12.1 Flood Damage Estimation 63
3.13 Identification and Prioritisation of Risk Reduction Options 66
3.13.1 Prevention of Hazard 70
3.13.2 Detection of Hazard 70
3.13.3 Control of Hazard 74
3.13.4 Mitigation of Hazard 76
3.13.5 Emergency Response 80
3.14 Summary 85
Further Reading 86
4 Windstorms 89
4.1 Learning Objectives 90
4.2 Living with Windstorms 90
4.3 Overview of the Typical Impacts of Windstorms 91
4.4 Causes of Windstorms 92
4.5 Tropical Windstorms 93
4.6 Tornadoes 98
4.7 Risk Management 101
4.7.1 Historical Approaches 101
4.8 Hazard Identification 104
4.9 Assessment of the Vulnerabilities 106
4.10 Determination of the Risk 111
4.10.1 Windstorm Damage Estimation 111
4.11 Identification and Prioritisation of Risk Reduction Options 112
4.11.1 Detection of Hazard 112
4.11.2 Control of Hazard 114
4.11.3 Mitigation of the Hazard 114
4.11.3.1 Cyclones/Hurricanes/Typhoons 114
4.11.3.2 Tornadoes (many of these options will also be useful for mitigating other windstorm hazards) 114
4.11.4 Emergency Response 114
4.12 Summary 116
Further Reading 120
Section III Geological Hazards 123
5 Earthquakes 125
Learning Objectives 126
5.1 Living with Earthquakes 126
5.1.1 Overview of the Typical Impacts of Earthquakes 126
5.2 Causes of Earthquakes 127
5.2.1 The Natural Hazard 130
5.2.1.1 Types of Fault Boundaries 130
5.3 Seismic Activity 133
5.4 Risk Management 135
5.4.1 Historical Approaches 135
5.5 Hazard Identification 135
5.6 Assessment of the Vulnerabilities 136
5.7 Determination of the Risk 142
5.7.1 Earthquake Damage Estimation 142
5.8 Identification and Prioritisation of Risk Reduction Options 144
5.8.1 Inherent Safety 146
5.8.2 Detection of Hazard 146
5.8.3 Mitigation of Hazard 146
5.8.4 Earthquake-Resistant Construction 146
5.8.5 Mitigation of Tsunamis 147
5.8.6 Emergency Response 150
5.9 Summary 152
Further Reading 154
6 Volcanoes 155
6.1 Learning Objectives 155
6.2 Living with Volcanoes 155
6.3 Overview of the Typical Impacts of Volcanoes 157
6.4 Causes of Volcanoes 159
6.4.1 The Natural Hazard 160
6.4.2 Types of Volcanoes 160
6.5 Volcanic Activity 161
6.6 Risk Management 169
6.6.1 Historical Approaches 169
6.7 Risk Management 172
6.7.1 Hazard Identification 172
6.7.2 Assessment of the Vulnerabilities 172
6.7.3 Determination of the Risk 173
6.7.3.1 Primary Volcanic Hazards 173
6.7.3.2 Secondary Volcanic Hazards 174
6.8 Identification and Prioritisation of Risk Reduction Options 175
6.8.1 Inherent Safety and Prevention 176
6.8.2 Detection of Hazard 177
6.8.3 Control of the Hazard 178
6.8.4 Mitigation of Hazard 178
6.8.5 Emergency Response 178
6.9 Summary 182
Further Reading 183
7 Landslides 185
Alister Smith
7.1 Learning Objectives 185
7.2 What are Landslides? 185
7.3 Statistics on Landslides 187
7.4 Causes and Impacts of Landslides 189
7.5 Risk Management 193
7.5.1 Hazard Identification 193
7.5.2 Assessment of the Vulnerabilities 196
7.5.3 Determination of the Risk 196
7.5.4 Identification and Prioritisation of Risk Reduction Options 196
7.6 Summary 201
Further Reading 204
Section IV Key Considerations and Ways Forward 207
8 Key Principles 209
8.1 Learning Objectives 209
8.2 Integrating DRR Measures into Construction Practice 209
8.2.1 Resilient Built Environment 210
8.2.2 Structural and Non-Structural Approaches 213
8.3 Seven Key Principles 216
8.3.1 Principle 1: Adopt a Holistic Perspective 216
8.3.2 Principle 2: Develop and Appropriately Apply Resilient Technologies 217
8.3.3 Principle 3: Engage a Wide Range of Stakeholders (Including Local Communities) in Resilience Efforts 218
8.3.4 Principle 4: Utilise Existing Guidance and Frameworks When Appropriate 222
8.3.5 Principle 5: Exploit Opportunities to Build-In Resiliency Measures Post-Disaster 225
8.3.6 Principle 6: Integrate Built Environment and Emergency Management Practitioners Into the DRR Process 226
8.3.7 Principle 7: Mainstream Resilience into the Built Environment Curricula 227
8.4 Summary 230
Further Reading 231
9 DRR and Sustainability: An Integrated Approach 233
9.1 Learning Objectives 233
9.2 Integrating Resilience and Sustainability: Why is it Important? 233
9.3 What is Sustainability? 236
9.3.1 Understanding the Concept: Three Dimensions of Sustainability 236
9.3.2 Global Challenges and Sustainability Index 237
9.3.3 Sustainable Built Environment 240
9.4 Can the Built Environment Be Sustainable and Resilient? 241
9.4.1 Opportunities 244
9.5 Summary 247
Further Reading 250
10 Conclusions and Recommendations 251
10.1 Dynamic Factors (and Root Causes) 252
10.2 Moving away from Disaster Risk Creation 252
10.3 Moving towards a New Developmental DNA 257
10.4 Future Research and Educational Challenges 258
10.5 Final Thoughts for Construction Practitioners 258
10.5.1 Towards DRR as a Core Professional Competency 261
Further Reading 261
Index 263
List of Figures
- Chapter 1: Introduction
- Figure 1.1 Locals dealing with the aftermath of the 2015 Nepalese earthquake
- Figure 1.2 Potential interrelationships between climate change and hazards/threats
- Figure 1.3 Global GHG emissions by country and by sector
- Figure 1.4 IPCC Sea level rise projections: Compilation of paleo sea level data, tide gauge data, altimeter data, and central estimates and likely ranges for projections of global mean sea level rise for RCP2.6 (blue) and RCP8.5 (red) scenarios (Section 13.5.1), all relative to pre-industrial values (2013)
- Figure 1.5 Total number of people reported affected by disasters, globally between 1915-2015
- Figure 1.6 Total number of disasters associated with natural hazards 1915-2015
- Figure 1.7 Total number of people killed by disasters associated with natural hazards 1915-2015
- Figure 1.8 Total number of people killed by technological disasters 1915-2015
- Figure 1.9 Total number of people affected by technological disasters 1915-2015
- Figure 1.10 Total number of disasters associated with different types of natural hazards 1965-2015
- Figure 1.11 Total economic damages caused by disasters associated with natural hazards between 1960-2015 (values normalized to 2014 US$)
- Figure 1.12 Share of life years lost across income groups
- Chapter 2: Disaster Risk Reduction
- Figure 2.1 Devastation caused by the 2010 Haiti earthquake
- Figure 2.2 Example of a two-person 72-hour emergency kit go bag
- Figure 2.3 Reconstruction in Nepal after the 2015 earthquakes
- Figure 2.4 The components of resilience.
- Figure 2.5 El Niño and La Nina conditions
- Figure 2.6 Sendai UN Conference on DRR in March 2015
- Figure 2.7 Making cities resilient campaign
- Figure 2.8 Promoting community resilience to extreme weather in Cambodia.
- Figure 2.9 Phases of disaster risk management.
- Figure 2.10 Typical illustration of the "disaster cycle."
- Figure 2.11 Phases of disaster
- Figure 2.12 A typical risk matrix.
- Figure 2.13 Overview of the risk management decision-making framework.
- Chapter 3: Flooding
- Figure 3.1 Amount of climate related disasters globally 1980-2011 (UNISDR, 2012).
- Figure 3.2 Illustration of the different types of flood risk
- Figure 3.3 Flooding in Carlisle, England in January 2005. Poor planning contributed to critical services such as the emergency services, local government offices and electricity substations being located in flood prone areas
- Figure 3.4 A flood plain is an area of land adjacent to a stream or river that stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls and experiences flooding during periods of high discharge
- Figure 3.5 The stretch of track at Dawlish in south Devon was left hanging when the sea wall built to protect it was destroyed during a storm, which battered the south west of England in February 2014
- Figure 3.6 Tewkesbury Abbey located on high ground and thus protected from the 2007 floods that affected the rest of the Tewkesbury, England
- Figure 3.7 Shushtar, Historical Hydraulic System (in modern day Iran) inscribed as a UNESCO heritage site is an ancient wonder of water management that can be traced back to Darius the Great in the fifth century B.C.
- Figure 3.8 Traditional house elevated over a floodplain in Cambodia
- Figure 3.9 Example of an EA flood risk map that has been designed for use by the general public, in this case showing Carlisle, England
- Figure 3.10 Photo of flood marker (height of the line is approximately 1.8 meters from pavement level) recording the November 2009 flood level in Main Street, Cockermouth, England
- Figure 3.11 Last but vulnerable remnant of mangrove forest (that used to line this coastal area) on the east coast of Havelock Island, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
- Figure 3.12 Vulnerability table based on English Planning Policy Statement 25. Buildings/sites that are used for high vulnerability activities (such as schools and emergency services) should ideally be located away from high flood risk areas
- Figure 3.13 Flood zoning that can be used to encourage appropriate developments and discourage inappropriate developments based upon English Planning Policy Statement 25
- Figure 3.14 Inundation modelling results showing different building treatments. (i) Digital Terrain Model (DTM) treatment where all buildings and vegetation are stripped from the topography, (ii) DTM has the building footprints stamped on (iii) DTM+ Thresholds has buildings footprints stamped on at threshold height
- Figure 3.15 Three fundamental approaches to dealing with flood risk. a) Retreat - To retreat is to step back from the problem and avoid a potentially catastrophic blow. It is to move critical infrastructure and housing to safer ground and to allow the water into the city to alleviate flood risk, b) Defend - To defend is to ensure the sea water does not enter the existing built environment and c) Attack - To attack is to advance and step seaward of the existing coastline
- Figure 3.16 Site on the Blackwater estuary in Essex, England, showing a proposed sea wall breach to allow arable land to develop into coastal marshland
- Figure 3.17 Natural storm and flood protection provided by mangroves on Iriomote Island, Japan
- Figure 3.18 A woody debris dam used as part of an environmentally friendly and cost effective flood alleviation scheme on the upper catchment of the River Derwent, England
- Figure 3.19 The Oosterscheldekering surge barrier, Netherlands
- Figure 3.20 Overview of the principles of SUDS. During a storm event, surface water flows through swales and filter trenches that remove pollutants(1). The peak river discharge is delated and reduced by: storage of water for re-use (2), storage in ponds (3), or infiltration of water to the ground through infiltration basins and soakaways (4). This process improves the quality of the water in rivers and decreases peak river discharge (5)
- Figure 3.21 SUDS in use at the Building Research Establishment's Innovation Park (Scotland): Examples of swales and permeable paving
- Figure 3.22 The Foss Flood Barrier in York, shown in the opened position to allow water to pass through
- Figure 3.23 Part of the innovative temporary aluminium barrier system being deployed on the banks of the River Severn in Bewdley, England
- Figure 3.24 Overview of types of flood resilient and resistant measures that can be used for housing
- Figure 3.25 Flood gates at an entrance to the Tokyo Metro system. These barriers can be deployed quickly to protect the Metro system in the event of a potential flood
- Figure 3.26 Example of an amphibious house, as designed by BACA Architects. When a flood occurs, the entire building rises up in its dock and floats there, buoyed by the floodwater
- Chapter 4: Windstorms
- Figure 4.1 Global distribution of tropical windstorms
- Figure 4.2 Cross section of a tropical windstorm (H = High pressure; L = Low pressure)
- Figure 4.3 Illustration of a storm surge
- Figure 4.4 Tornado hazard map
- Figure 4.5 Cross section of a tornado
- Figure 4.6 Typical faleo'o beach fale, Manono Island, Samoa
- Figure 4.7 Traditional thatched 'kutcha' hut with fishing net used as storm protection. A practice used in the cyclone prone East Godavari region of Andhra Pradesh, India
- Figure 4.8 Traditional high status house in coastal area of Sri Potti Sri Ramulu, Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh, India. The house is built on an elevated plinth to protect the property from localised flooding caused by storm surges
- Figure 4.9 Tracks of tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons between 1945 and 2006
- Figure 4.10 Predicted path of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 that turned out to be quite accurate
- Figure 4.11 New York City: Hurricane Evacuation Zone finder
- Figure 4.12 Example of storm surge risk zoning maps that can be used for urban zoning and planning
- Figure 4.13 Examples of natural, constructed and hybrid approaches to coastal defence
- Figure 4.14 Example of residential safe room
- Figure 4.15 Typical plans for a concrete masonry unit (CMU) safe room (FEMA, 1998).
- Figure 4.16 Example of a community generated vulnerability map of the village of Laxmipathipuram in Andhra Pradesh, India, indicating households/areas most at risk of the impacts of a cyclone and flood
- Chapter 5: Earthquakes
- Figure 5.1 The deserted main square of Poggioreale; a village abandoned after the 1968 Belice earthquake in Sicily
- Figure 5.2 Extensive damage to housing caused by the Haitian earthquake in 2010
- Figure 5.3 The tectonic plates of the world
- Figure 5.4 The main types of tectonic plate boundaries
- Figure 5.5 Types of...
