Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid
Description
Power electronics plays a significant role in modern industrial automation and high- efficiency energy systems. With contributions from an international group of noted experts, Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid: Technology and Applications offers a comprehensive review of the technology and applications of power electronics in renewable energy systems and smart grids. The authors cover information on a variety of energy systems including wind, solar, ocean, and geothermal energy systems as well as fuel cell systems and bulk energy storage systems. They also examine smart grid elements, modeling, simulation, control, and AI applications.
The book's twelve chapters offer an application-oriented and tutorial viewpoint and also contain technology status review. In addition, the book contains illustrative examples of applications and discussions of future perspectives. This important resource:
* Includes descriptions of power semiconductor devices, two level and multilevel converters, HVDC systems, FACTS, and more
* Offers discussions on various energy systems such as wind, solar, ocean, and geothermal energy systems, and also fuel cell systems and bulk energy storage systems
* Explores smart grid elements, modeling, simulation, control, and AI applications
* Contains state-of-the-art technologies and future perspectives
* Provides the expertise of international authorities in the field
Written for graduate students, professors in power electronics, and industry engineers, Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid: Technology and Applications offers an up-to-date guide to technology and applications of a wide-range of power electronics in energy systems and smart grids.
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Bimal K. Bose is currently emeritus professor of Electrical Engineering at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He was Condra Chair of Excellence in Power Electronics at UTK during 1987-2003 where he was responsible for organizing the teaching and research program in power electronics. He was also the Distinguished Scientist and Chief Scientist of EPRI Power Electronics Applications Center, Knoxville. He has been awarded seven times by the IEEE and is a member of the US National Academy of Engineering. He has authored/edited eight books in power electronics and holds 21 U.S. Patents.
Content
Preface xiii
About the editor xix
About the contributors xxi
List of abbreviations xxxiii
Chapter 1 Energy, Environment, Power Electronics, Renewable Energy Systems, and Smart Grid 1
Bimal K. Bose and Fei (Fred) Wang
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Energy 1
1.3 Environment 4
1.3.1 Environmental Pollution by Fossil Fuels 4
1.3.2 Climate Change or Global Warming Problems 7
1.3.3 Several Beneficial Effects of Climate Change 11
1.3.4 The Kyoto Protocol and Carbon Emission Control 12
1.3.5 How Can We Solve or Mitigate Climate Change Problems? 13
1.4 Power Electronics 14
1.4.1 The Role of Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Grids 14
1.4.2 Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16
1.4.3 Power Electronics Applications 35
1.5 Renewable Energy Systems 48
1.5.1 Wind Energy Systems 50
1.5.2 PV Systems 52
1.5.3 Grid Energy Storage 53
1.6 Smart Grid 54
1.6.1 FACTS Technologies 54
1.6.2 HVDC Technologies 60
1.6.3 DC Grid and Supergrid 66
1.6.4 Power Electronics for Distribution Grids 73
1.7 Summary and Future Trends 76
Acknowledgments 78
References 78
Chapter 2 Power Semiconductor Devices for Smart Grid and Renewable Energy Systems 85
Alex Q. Huang
2.1 Introduction 85
2.2 Power Semiconductor Device Operation in Power Converters 87
2.2.1 Commercially Available Power Semiconductor Devices 87
2.2.2 Modern Power Semiconductor Device Characteristics 90
2.3 State-of-the-Art Power Semiconductors: A Comparison 101
2.3.1 Voltage Rating 102
2.3.2 Current Rating 103
2.3.3 Switching Frequency 108
2.3.4 Maximum Junction Temperature 114
2.4 Recent Innovations in SI Power Devices 117
2.4.1 Silicon Superjunction (SJ) MOSFET 117
2.4.2 Thin Wafer Field Stop IGBT (FS-IGBT) 119
2.4.3 Reverse Conducting IGBT (RC-IGBT) 123
2.4.4 Reverse Blocking IGBT 124
2.4.5 Integrated-Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) 124
2.5 Recent Innovations in WBG Power Devices 127
2.5.1 SiC and GaN Diodes 128
2.5.2 SiC MOSFET 131
2.5.3 Ultra High-Voltage SiC Power Devices 135
2.5.4 GaN Heterojunction Field Effect Transistor 137
2.6 Smart Grid and Renewable Energy System Applications 138
2.7 Conclusions 144
References 144
Chapter 3 Multilevel Converters - Configuration of Circuits and Systems 153
Hirofumi Akagi
3.1 Introduction 153
3.1.1 Historical Review of Multilevel Converters 153
3.1.2 Overview of Chapter 3 155
3.2 Multilevel NPC and NPP Inverters 155
3.2.1 Circuits of Three-Level NPC and NPP Inverters 155
3.2.2 Principles of the Three-Level NPC and NPP Inverters 156
3.2.3 Comparisons Between the Three-Level NPC and NPP Inverters 158
3.2.4 Five-Level NPC Inverters 160
3.3 Multilevel FLC Inverters and Hybrid FLC Inverters 161
3.3.1 Circuits of the Three-Level and Four-Level FLC Inverters 161
3.3.2 Principles of the Three-Level FLC Inverter 162
3.3.3 Hybrid Four-Level and Five-Level FLC Inverters 162
3.4 Modular Multilevel Cascade Converters 164
3.4.1 Terminological Issue and Solution 164
3.4.2 Circuits and Individualities of Six Family Members 167
3.4.3 Topological Discussion on the DSBC and DSCC Converters 168
3.4.4 Comparisons among the Six MMCC Family Members 169
3.4.5 Circulating Current 170
3.5 Practical Applications of SSBC Inverters to Medium-Voltage Motor Drives 171
3.6 Hierarchical Control of an SSBC-Based STATCOM 173
3.6.1 Background and Motivation 173
3.6.2 Hierarchical Control 174
3.7 A Downscaled SSBC-Based STATCOM With Phase-Shifted-Carrier PWM 176
3.7.1 System Configuration 177
3.7.2 Control Technique 179
3.7.3 Experimental Waveforms 181
3.8 Circulating Currents in DSCC Converters 183
3.8.1 Circulating Current in a Cycloconverter 184
3.8.2 Circulating Current in a Single-Leg DSCC Inverter 185
3.8.3 Similarity and Difference in Circulating Current 186
3.9 A Downscaled DSCC-Based BTB System 187
3.9.1 Circuit Configuration 187
3.9.2 Operating Performance under Transient States 189
3.10 Practical Applications of DSCC Converters to Grid Connections 192
3.11 Applications of DSCC and TSBC Converters to Motor Drives 193
3.11.1 DSCC-based Motor Drive Systems 193
3.11.2 Experimental Motor Drives Using a DSCC Inverter and a TSBC Converter 195
3.11.3 Comparisons in Start-up Performance when the 50 Hz Induction Motor was Driven 198
3.11.4 Operation of the DSCC-Driven 50 Hz Motor and the TSBC-Driven 38 Hz Motor at the Rated Frequency and Torque 202
3.11.5 Four-Quadrant Operation of the TSBC-driven 38 Hz Motor at No Load Torque 204
3.11.6 Discussion of the Two Motor Drives 204
3.12 Distributed Dynamic Braking of a DSCC-FED Induction Motor Drive 204
3.12.1 Background and Motivation 206
3.12.2 Circuit and System Configurations 206
3.12.3 Experimental Verification 210
3.13 Practical Applications of DSCC Inverters to Medium-Voltage Motor Drives 212
3.14 Future Scenarios and Conclusion 213
References 214
Chapter 4 Multilevel Converters - Control and Operation in Industrial Systems 219
Jose I. Leon, Sergio Vazquez and Leopoldo G. Franquelo
4.1 Introduction 219
4.2 Summary of Multilevel Converter Topologies 221
4.3 Control Structure of Multilevel Power Converters 223
4.3.1 The Outer Control Loop (Stage 1) 225
4.3.2 The Inner Control Loop (Stage 2) 225
4.3.3 The Zero-Sequence Injection (Stage 3) 226
4.3.4 The In-phase Balancing Strategy (Stage 3) 227
4.4 Modulation Methods for Multilevel Power Converters (Stage 4) 227
4.4.1 Carrier-Based Modulation Techniques 228
4.4.2 Space-vector Based Modulation Methods 242
4.4.3 Pseudo-Modulation Techniques and Control Methods with Implicit Modulator 243
4.5 Applications of Multilevel Power Converters 245
4.5.1 Grid-connected Multilevel Converters for the Integration of Renewable Energy Sources 245
4.5.2 Power Quality Applications 248
4.5.3 Motor Drive Applications 250
4.5.4 HVDC Transmission Systems 251
4.6 Additional Practical Challenges of Multilevel Converters 257
4.7 Future Perspective of Multilevel Converters and Conclusions 258
References 259
Chapter 5 Flexible Transmission and Resilient Distribution Systems Enabled by Power Electronics 271
Fang Z. Peng and Jin Wang
5.1 Introduction 271
5.2 FACTS Configurations in the Smart Grid 279
5.2.1 Shunt Compensation 281
5.2.2 Series Compensation 284
5.2.3 Shunt-Series Configuration 285
5.2.4 Back-to-Back Configuration 286
5.3 RACDS Configurations in the Smart Grid 287
5.3.1 RACDS: Microgrids 287
5.3.2 RACDS: Controllable Distribution Network 289
5.3.3 RACDS: Meshed Distribution Systems 290
5.4 Evolution of FACTS and RACDS 291
5.4.1 Traditional FACTS and RACDS 291
5.4.2 Modern FACTS and RACDS 293
5.5 FACTS and RACDS Installations 298
5.5.1 Traditional FACTS Installations 298
5.5.2 Modern FACTS Installations 299
5.5.3 RACDS Installations 301
5.6 Future Perspectives 301
5.6.1 Transformerless Unified Power Flow Controller 301
5.6.2 Compact Dynamic Phase-Angle Regulator 303
5.6.3 Distributed FACTS 303
5.6.4 Power Regulator for Parallel Feeders 305
5.6.5 High Power Density CMIs 307
5.7 Conclusion 309
Acknowledgments 310
References 310
Chapter 6 Renewable Energy Systems with Wind Power 315
Frede Blaabjerg and Ke Ma
6.1 Overview of Wind Power Generation and Power Electronics 315
6.2 Technology Challenges and Driving Forces in this Field 318
6.2.1 Low Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 318
6.2.2 Complex Mission Profiles 320
6.2.3 Strict Grid Codes 322
6.2.4 Increasing Reliability Requirements 325
6.3 Wind Turbine Concepts and Power Electronics Converters 326
6.3.1 Wind Turbine Concepts 326
6.3.2 Power Electronics Converters in Wind Power Applications 328
6.4 Control of Wind Turbine Systems 333
6.5 Power Electronics for Multiple Wind Turbines and Wind Farms 336
6.6 Conclusion 340
References 341
Chapter 7 Photovoltaic Energy Systems 347
Mariusz Malinowski, Jose I. Leon and Haitham Abu-Rub
7.1 Introduction 347
7.2 Thermal and PV Solar Energy Systems 351
7.3 The Solar Cell 354
7.4 Solar PV System Costs 357
7.4.1 Incentives for More Investments in PV Systems 361
7.5 General Scheme for a Solar PV System 362
7.6 Grid-Connected PV Systems 363
7.6.1 Utility-scale PV Power Plants 364
7.6.2 Residential and Industrial PV Applications 366
7.6.3 Low-power PV Systems 371
7.7 Control of Grid-Connected PV Systems 372
7.8 Stand-Alone PV Systems 374
7.9 Energy Storage Systems for PV Applications 379
7.10 Operational Issues for PV Systems 381
7.11 Conclusions 385
References 386
Chapter 8 Ocean and Geothermal Renewable Energy Systems 391
Annette von Jouanne and Ted K.A. Brekken
8.1 Introduction 391
8.2 Wave Energy 392
8.2.1 Resource Characteristics 392
8.2.2 Wave Energy Conversion Technologies and Resource Characterization 394
8.2.3 Power Electronics and Control 397
8.2.4 Autonomous Applications 401
8.2.5 Cost 403
8.2.6 Rotating Machines in Marine Energy Converters 405
8.2.7 Unique Testing Opportunity for Wave Energy Converters 406
8.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 411
8.3.1 Resource Characteristics 412
8.3.2 OTEC Technologies 413
8.3.3 Open-cycle OTEC 414
8.3.4 Closed-cycle OTEC 415
8.3.5 OTEC Generator Grid Interface 415
8.3.6 Cost 416
8.4 Tidal and Ocean Currents 417
8.4.1 Resource Characteristics 418
8.4.2 Tidal Barrage, Tidal Current, and Ocean Current Technologies 420
8.4.3 Power Electronics and Grid Interface 422
8.4.4 Cost 425
8.5 Geothermal Energy Systems 426
8.5.1 Resource Characteristics 428
8.5.2 Geothermal Power Plant Technologies 429
8.5.3 Dry Steam 431
8.5.4 Flash Steam 431
8.5.5 Binary Cycle 432
8.5.6 Geothermal Generator Grid Interface 432
8.5.7 Cost 433
8.6 Conclusion 434
Acknowledgment 435
References 435
Chapter 9 Fuel Cells and Their Applications in Energy Systems 443
Jih-Sheng (Jason) Lai and Michael W. Ellis
9.1 Introduction 443
9.2 Different Fuel Cell Technologies 446
9.2.1 Low-temperature Fuel Cells 447
9.2.2 High-temperature Fuel Cells 453
9.3 Fuel Cell Applications 457
9.3.1 Transportation Applications 457
9.3.2 Stationary Power Generation Applications 460
9.4 Electrical Characteristics 462
9.4.1 Steady-state Operation 462
9.4.2 Dynamic Operation 465
9.4.3 Dynamic Operation with a Paralleled Ultracapacitor 468
9.5 Fuel Cell Power System Architecture 468
9.5.1 Balance-of-Plant 468
9.5.2 Fuel Cell DC Power Systems 469
9.5.3 Grounding Requirement for Fuel Cell AC Power Systems 471
9.6 Power Electronics for Fuel Cell Applications 472
9.6.1 DC-DC Converters 472
9.6.2 DC-AC Inverter 479
9.6.3 Double-Line Frequency Issues 484
9.7 Summary 485
References 486
Chapter 10 Grid Energy Storage Systems 495
Marcelo G. Molina
10.1 Introduction 495
10.2 Smart Grid Applications of Energy Storage 500
10.3 Energy Storage Technologies 506
10.3.1 Mechanical Energy Storage 507
10.3.2 Electrical Energy Storage 518
10.3.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 529
10.3.4 Chemical Energy Storage 547
10.3.5 Thermal Energy Storage 552
10.4 Assessment of Energy Storage Technologies 555
10.5 Power Conditioning System for Interfacing Energy Storage Technologies with the Smart Grid 565
10.6 Conclusion 572
References 574
Chapter 11 Smart Grid Simulations and Control 585
Aranya Chakrabortty and Anjan Bose
11.1 Introduction 585
11.2 Simulation Models 586
11.2.1 Synchronous Generators 588
11.2.2 Models of Renewable Energy Sources 589
11.2.3 Transmission Line Models 591
11.2.4 Load Models 591
11.3 Current Approach for Smart Grid Simulation 592
11.3.1 Power Flow Analysis 592
11.3.2 Dynamic Simulations 593
11.3.3 Economic Dispatch and OPF 593
11.3.4 Fault Analysis 594
11.3.5 Load Frequency Control 594
11.3.6 Operator Training Simulator 594
11.3.7 Reliability Modeling and Simulation 594
11.3.8 Simulation of Power Markets 595
11.4 Challenges for Grid Simulation 595
11.4.1 Structural Properties 596
11.4.2 Scalability 596
11.4.3 Model Validation 596
11.4.4 Model Aggregation 597
11.4.5 Role of Power Electronics 597
11.4.6 Co-simulation of T&D Models 598
11.4.7 Co-Simulation of Infrastructures 599
11.4.8 Cyber-Physical Modeling and Simulations 601
11.5 Next-Generation Grid Control Systems 605
11.5.1 Wide-area Control 605
11.5.2 Cyber-Physical Challenges for Wide-area Control 608
11.5.3 Scheduling Protocols 612
11.5.4 Co-designing Wide-area Control in Tandem with Communication Protocols 613
11.5.5 Plug-and-play Control of DERs 615
11.5.6 Distributed Load Frequency Control 616
11.5.7 Inner-loop + Outer-loop Hierarchical Control 617
11.6 Experimental Testbeds for Simulations and Control 618
11.7 Conclusions 619
References 620
Chapter 12 Artificial Intelligence Applications in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid - Some Novel Applications 625
Bimal K. Bose
12.1 Introduction 625
12.2 Expert Systems 627
12.2.1 Expert System Principles 627
12.2.2 Expert System-Based Control of Smart Grid 631
12.3 Fuzzy Logic 636
12.3.1 Fuzzy Inference System Principles 637
12.3.2 Fuzzy Logic Control of a Modern Wind Generation System 644
12.4 Neural Networks 650
12.4.1 Neural Network Principles 650
12.4.2 Neural Network Applications 662
12.5 Conclusion 672
Acknowledgment 673
References 673
Index 677
PREFACE
With a sense of pride and immense accomplishment, I am presenting this book to the professional communities of the world with the hope that it will be enthusiastically received like my other books in the power electronics area. This is essentially the eighth book in power electronics that I have authored and edited in my long professional career of more than 50 years.
It is well-known that the revolution in power electronics was ushered in by the introduction of solid-state power semiconductor devices almost 60 years ago, along with the evolution in digital electronics that has created significant impact in our society. Since the beginning, power electronics has grown as a multidisciplinary technology and has been applied extensively in industrial, commercial, residential, transportation, aerospace, military and utility systems, with automation and efficient energy conversion systems that contribute to efficiency improvement of the equipment. Recently, the advent of artificial intelligence techniques is creating a challenging frontier for power electronics, with many novel applications in renewable energy systems and smart grid.
Power electronics has now grown to be possibly the most important technology in the twenty-first century. In our future vision of smart grid, the role of power electronics in high-voltage DC (HVDC) systems, static VAR compensators (SVCs), flexible AC transmission systems (FACTs), fuel cell energy conversion systems, uninterruptible power systems (UPS), besides the renewable energy and bulk energy storage systems, will be tremendous. The renewable energy segment is continuously growing, and our dream of 100% renewables in the long run (with the complete demise of fossil fuels and nuclear energy) is not unrealistic. Therefore, the increasingly important role of power electronics in our society remains obvious.
This book contains 12 chapters which were contributed by my invitation from well-renowned professionals across the world who are specialists in the respective areas. All the chapters essentially review the state-of-the-art technology with application examples to cater for the needs of readers who want to learn about power electronics applications in modern renewable energy systems and smart grid. In fact, the idea for this book came after publication of our special issue of the Proceedings of the IEEE on Power Electronics in Smart Grid and Renewable Energy Systems in November 2017.
Chapter 1, "Energy, Environment, Power Electronics, Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid," was contributed by me and my colleague Fred Wang. This is an introductory chapter for the book that gives a comprehensive overview of the important elements. Energy and environmental issues, such as climate change problems, their consequences and remedial measures, are somewhat emphasized in the beginning because these are the foundations upon which the motivations for clean energy systems and modernization of the power grid are based. However, the main focus of this chapter is introduction of modern power electronics technology and its applications in renewable energy systems and smart grid. The discussion includes modern power semiconductor devices, converter topologies, and some of the most common power electronics applications, particularly those related to modern power grids. Finally, the renewable energy systems and smart grid features are overviewed, emphasizing their basis on power electronics.
Chapter 2, "Power Semiconductor Devices for Smart Grid and Renewable Energy Systems," was contributed by Alex Huang. It provides a critical review of some of the major power semiconductor device technologies and their applications in renewable energy systems and smart grid. Highly efficient and reliable power electronic systems that convert and process electrical energy from one form to another are critical for smart grid and renewable energy systems. The power semiconductor device, as the cornerstone technology in a power electronics system, plays a pivotal role in determining the system efficiency, size, and cost. Starting from the invention and commercialization of the silicon bipolar junction transistor around 60 years ago, a whole array of silicon power semiconductor devices have been developed and commercialized. These devices enable power electronics systems to reach ultra-high efficiency and the high power capacity needed for various smart grid and renewable energy system applications, such as photovoltaic (PV), wind, energy storage, electric vehicle (EV), flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), and high-voltage DC (HVDC) transmission. In the last two decades, newer generations of power semiconductor devices based on wide bandgap (WBG) materials, such as SiC and GaN, have been developed and commercialized, further pushing the boundary of power semiconductor devices to higher voltages, higher frequencies, higher temperatures, and higher efficiencies.
Chapter 3, "Multilevel Converters - Configuration of Circuits and Systems," was contributed by Hirofumi Akagi. It begins with the definition of "multilevel converters" in a broad sense, followed by a chronological overview. The multilevel converters can be categorized as three-level neutral-point clamped (NPC) and neutral-point-piloted (NPP) inverters, three-level and four-level flying capacitor (FLC) inverters, combinations of the FLC inverter with the NPC or NPP inverter, and a family of modern modular multilevel converters (MMCs). Then it goes on to a discussion of their circuits and systems, as well as their applications to smart grids and medium-voltage, high-power motor drives. Some multilevel converter types have already been put into commercial use, some are in a research and development stage, and others are within the academic research stage. It is interesting to note that the modern MMCs based on a cascaded half-bridge topology are receiving maximum attention in the literature
Chapter 4, "Multilevel Converters - Control and Operation in Industrial Systems," was contributed by Jose Leon, Sergio Vazquez, and Leopoldo Franquelo. Considering the importance of multilevel converters in renewable energy systems and smart grid, an additional chapter was introduced to deal with their applications in industrial systems. It summarizes the best-known multilevel converter topologies and addresses their common modulation techniques. The main applications of multilevel converters are introduced, showing the implementation of conventional control methods. Grid-connected multilevel converters for the integration of renewable energy sources, power quality and motor drive applications, and HVDC systems are studied in some detail. Practical challenges and a future perspective of the application of multilevel converters are also addressed.
Chapter 5, "Flexible Transmission and Resilient Distribution Systems Enabled by Power Electronics," was contributed by Fang Peng and Jin Wang. It provides a broad review of the modernization efforts in FACTS technology leading up to its usage in the modern smart grid. Extension of FACTS technology to the resilient AC distribution system (RACDS) to facilitate the transition to "smart-distribution" is also discussed in some detail. The key benefits for the application of the modern FACTS technology lie in its ability to achieve fast, efficient and dynamic voltage/VAR control, optimized power routing, and independent real and reactive power control using a small footprint. On the other hand, the key benefits of the RACDS technology include its ability to improve grid resiliency and impart a "self-healing" capability to the power grid. Additionally, RACDS has the ability to integrate distributed energy sources into the power grid and enables bi-directional, interconnected distribution systems that are essential for a smart grid. Detailed analysis of different configurations of these technologies, a review of existing and ongoing commercial installations, and an overview of current and future research in this area form the essential contents of this chapter.
Chapter 6, "Renewable Energy Systems with Wind Power," was contributed by Frede Blaabjerg and Ke Ma. This chapter gives a broad review of the major challenges as well as the technology solutions in power electronics for wind power generation. First, the development of wind power along with power electronics, as well as the global market, are discussed. Several technological challenges and driving forces in this area are addressed. Afterwards, some important wind turbine concepts are summarized along with current/future power electronics solutions and control methods, either for individual wind turbines or for entire wind farms. As the level of grid penetration has begun to increase dramatically, wind power is starting to have significant impacts on the modern power grid systems, and advanced power electronics technologies are being introduced to improve the characteristics of wind turbines in order to make them more suitable for integration with the power grid.
Chapter 7, "Photovoltaic Energy Systems," was contributed by Mariusz Malinowski, Jose Leon, and Haitham Abu-Rub. It describes solar energy systems, which essentially constitute a mature technology. The rapid growth of solar photovoltaic energy worldwide indicates that this will become a very large source of energy in several decades, and will certainly become the core energy element for future power grids. The...
