Water Resources in the Built Environment
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Colin Booth is Associate Professor of Sustainability, Associate Head of Research and Scholarship and Director of the Construction and Property Research Centre at the University of the West of England, Bristol.
Susanne Charlesworth is a Reader in Urban Physical Geography at Coventry University in the Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster Management. She is Director of a Sustainable Drainage (SUDS) Applied Research Group at Coventry University. Both editors are proficient academics with extensive research publishing backgrounds and experience of working with industrial and research networks related to key players from the water industries and their chapter authors have been selected from these networks.
Content
Contributors xv
About the Editors xviii
Section 1 Introduction to the Book 1
Chapter 1 Water Resources: Balancing too Little Versus too Much 3
Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Too Little Versus too Much 3
1.3 Structure of the Book 6
1.4 Conclusions 7
References 7
Section 2 Water Demand, Policy and Cost 9
Chapter 2 Meeting Demand: Water Strategy, Policy and Legislation 11
Sharron McEldowney
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Legislative and Regulatory Framework for Managing the Water Resources 12
2.3 Water Management and Conservation for the Future 18
2.4 Conclusions 20
References 20
Chapter 3 Water Privatisation and Regulation: The UK Experience 23
John McEldowney
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 The First Country to Fully Privatise its Water and Sewerage Business 24
3.3 Water Privatisation and Structure 25
3.4 The Water Industry and the Domestic Market 27
3.5 The Water Industry and the Market for Business Customers 28
3.6 Conclusions 30
References 31
Chapter 4 Urban Water Economics 33
Graham Squires
4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Externalities 33
4.3 Pollution Control (of Water Resources at a Market or Zero Price) 34
4.4 Natural Resource Economics and Water 37
4.5 Resource Valuation and Measurement 38
4.6 International Issues and Development in Water 42
4.7 Conclusions 43
References 43
Section 3 Water Infrastructure and Supply 45
Chapter 5 Impacts and Issues of Dams and Reservoirs 47
KimTannahill, Peter Mills and Colin A. Booth
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Building Dams 48
5.3 Historical and Global Context 49
5.4 Environmental Impact 51
5.5 Socioeconomic Impact 52
5.6 Socioeconomic Impacts of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project 52
5.7 Socioeconomic Impacts of the Manwan Dam, Upper Mekong River, China 53
5.8 Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts of the Three Gorges Dam, China 54
5.9 Dam Risks: Incidents and Failures 55
5.10 Insights into the UNEP Dams Project 57
5.11 Conclusions 59
References 59
Chapter 6 Powering the Water Industry 61
Jay Millington
6.1 Introduction 61
6.2 Conventional Approach 61
6.3 Hydropower 63
6.4 Micro and Small Hydros 68
6.5 Other Factors 72
6.6 Conclusions 74
Acknowledgements 74
References 75
Chapter 7 Water Quality and Treatment 77
J. Bryan Ellis
7.1 Introduction 77
7.2 Water Quality 78
7.3 Drinking Water Safety Plans 84
7.4 Urban Growth and Water Demand 86
7.5 Conclusions 89
References 89
Chapter 8 Desalination 92
Augustine Ifelebuegu, Susanne M. Charlesworth and Colin A. Booth
8.1 Introduction 92
8.2 Desalination Technologies 93
8.3 Developing Technologies 94
8.4 Economics of Desalination 94
8.5 Small and Domestic Scale Desalination Plants 97
8.6 Environmental Impacts 98
8.7 Renewable Energy Sources and Desalination 99
8.8 The Future of Desalination and Sustainable Water Supplies 99
8.9 Case Study: The Thames Water Desalination Plant 100
8.10 Conclusions 101
References 101
Chapter 9 Delivering and Designing for Potable Water in Buildings 104
Phil Harris
9.1 Introduction 104
9.2 Regulating Water Supply 105
9.3 Water Supply to Domestic Low-Rise Buildings 106
9.4 Water Supply to Medium and High-Rise Buildings (or Those with Insufficient Mains Pressure) 110
9.5 Pipe Sizing and Flow Rate Design in Buildings 113
9.6 Pipework Maintenance Issues 116
9.7 Future Issues 118
References 119
Section 4 Water Conservation Strategies 121
Chapter 10 Water Neutrality - An Overview 123
Victoria Ashton
10.1 Introduction 123
10.2 Defining Water Neutrality 124
10.3 Strategies for Water Neutrality Implementation 126
10.4 Funding Mechanisms 131
10.5 Conclusions 133
References 134
Chapter 11 Building Regulations for Water Conservation 135
Sean Churchill, Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth
11.1 Introduction 135
11.2 What are the Building Regulations? 136
11.3 Background to the Changes in Approved Document G 137
11.4 Changes to Approved Document G and the Water Calculator for New Dwellings 139
11.5 Rainwater and Greywater Recycling 143
11.6 Case Study: Calculating Water Usage 144
11.7 Other Household Water Conservation Measures 147
11.8 Conclusions 148
References 149
Chapter 12 Rainwater Harvesting - Reaping a Free and Plentiful Supply of Water 151
Susanne M. Charlesworth, Colin A. Booth, Frank Warwick, Craig Lashford and Omolara O. Lade
12.1 Introduction 151
12.2 What is Rainwater Harvesting? 152
12.3 Policy 153
12.4 Rainwater Harvesting Design 154
12.5 Water Quality 156
12.6 Water Quantity 158
12.7 Cost-Benefit Analysis and Whole Life Costs 159
12.8 Case Studies 160
12.9 Conclusions 161
References 162
Chapter 13 Greywater Harvesting - Reusing, Recycling and Saving Household Water 165
Emma Hatfield, Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth
13.1 Introduction 165
13.2 Insights into Greywater Harvesting 166
13.3 The Potential for Using Greywater Harvesting Systems 167
13.4 Case Studies in the United Kingdom 171
13.5 The Future of Greywater Harvesting 175
13.6 Conclusions 176
References 177
Chapter 14 Inland Waterway Systems - A Solution to Drought and Flooding Issues 180
Carly B. Rose and Luke Walker
14.1 Introduction 180
14.2 The Past 180
14.3 The Present - Canals in the 20th Century 182
14.4 Sourcing and Conserving Water Supplies 185
14.5 A Climate Resilient Future 190
14.6 Conclusions 191
References 192
Section 5 Flooding Responses and Reinstatement 197
Chapter 15 Urban Precipitation: Measurements, Monitoring and Processes 199
Omolara O. Lade, Michael A. Fullen, David Oloke, Madhu Subedi and Colin A. Booth
15.1 Introduction 199
15.2 Types of Precipitation 200
15.3 Urban Climate and Potential Impacts 200
15.4 Urban Irrigation 201
15.5 Urban Effects on Rainfall Variability 202
15.6 Precipitation Variability in Thunderstorms 203
15.7 Measuring Precipitation 204
15.8 Spatial and Temporal Precipitation Monitoring 205
15.9 Case Study of Small-Scale Variability: Spatial Variability in Precipitation within the Hilton Experimental Site, Shropshire, UK 206
15.10 Conclusions 207
References 207
Chapter 16 Urbanisation and Stormwater 211
John W. Davies and Susanne M. Charlesworth
16.1 Introduction 211
16.2 Urbanisation and Flood Risk 211
16.3 Urban Drainage Systems 212
16.4 Problems with Drainage Systems 215
16.5 Sewer Flooding 215
16.6 Drainage System Capacity 216
16.7 Increasing or Decreasing Impermeable Surfaces 219
16.8 Storage 219
16.9 Stormwater Quality 220
16.10 Conclusions 221
References 222
Chapter 17 River Flood Defences 223
Carly B. Rose
17.1 Introduction 223
17.2 The Historical Context 224
17.3 The Future 229
17.4 Conclusions 229
References 230
Chapter 18 Coastal Flood Defences - Strategies for Protection in the United Kingdom 233
Trevor Goodhew
18.1 Introduction 233
18.2 Holding Back the Sea 233
18.3 The Nature and Complexity of the Coastal Processes 235
18.4 Coastal Flood Defences 237
18.5 The Strategy of Managed Retreat 239
18.6 Flooding Challenges from Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise 241
18.7 Changing Populations, Land Management and Development 244
18.8 Important National Infrastructure 245
18.9 Proportionate Risk-Based Approaches to Flood Risk Management 245
18.10 Beneficiaries Should be Encouraged to Invest in Risk Management 246
18.11 A View to the Future - Strategies Requiring Innovations and New Solutions 246
18.12 Conclusions 247
References 247
Chapter 19 The Costs of Flooding on Households 249
Rotimi Joseph, David G. Proverbs, Jessica E. Lamond and Peter Wassell
19.1 Introduction 249
19.2 Economic Costs of Flooding 250
19.3 Financial Costs of Flooding 251
19.4 Conclusions 255
References 256
Chapter 20 The Role of Market-Based Flood Insurance in Maintaining Communities at Risk of Flooding: A SWOT Analysis 258
Jessica E. Lamond
20.1 Introduction 258
20.2 Strengths 261
20.3 Weaknesses 264
20.4 Threats 266
20.5 Opportunities 267
20.6 Conclusions 268
References 269
Chapter 21 Holistic Property-Level Flood Protection 271
David W. Beddoes and Colin A. Booth
21.1 Introduction 271
21.2 Flood Resistance 272
21.3 Flood Resilience 273
21.4 Current Situation Facing Homeowners 274
21.5 Holistic Solutions 275
21.6 Conclusions 278
References 278
Section 6 Flood Solutions in the Urban Landscape 281
Chapter 22 Sustainable Drainage Systems - Features and Designs 283
Simon Watkins and Susanne M. Charlesworth
22.1 Introduction 283
22.2 Water and Landscape - One and Indivisible 283
22.3 Conclusions 300
References 301
Acknowledgements 301
Chapter 23 Drainage Benefits of Porous, Permeable and Pervious Paving 302
Miklas Scholz, Susanne M. Charlesworth and Steve J. Coupe
23.1 Introduction 302
23.2 Rethinking Stormwater Drainage 302
23.3 Porous, Permeable and Pervious Pavement Systems 303
23.4 Porous Pavements 304
23.5 Cost Implications of Utilising PPS 305
23.6 Design Considerations 305
23.7 Infiltration through PPSs 307
23.8 Maintenance to Enhance Infiltration 307
23.9 Water Quality Improvements 308
23.10 Biodegradation of Pollutants by Microorganisms 310
23.11 Directions of Further Investigation 311
23.12 Conclusions 314
References 314
Chapter 24 Multiple Benefits of Green Infrastructure 319
Rebecca Wade and Neil McLean
24.1 Introduction 319
24.2 What is Green Infrastructure? 320
24.3 Benefits of Green Infrastructure 322
24.4 Barriers to Implementation of GI 330
24.5 The Value of GI 332
24.6 Conclusions 332
References 333
Chapter 25 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Management 336
Kate V. Heal
25.1 Introduction 336
25.2 Treatment Processes in Constructed Wetlands 337
25.3 Different Types and Deployment of Constructed Wetlands and Reedbeds 338
25.4 Performance of Constructed Wastelands for Wastewater Management 341
25.5 Design Considerations for Constructed Wetlands 343
25.6 Construction and Maintenance Considerations for Constructed Wetlands 345
25.7 Costs of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Management 347
25.8 Conclusions 348
References 348
Chapter 26 Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure and Design 350
Joseph Akunna and Joanne Bartie
26.1 Introduction 350
26.2 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 351
26.3 Factors Affecting Investment in UK Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure 363
26.4 Conclusions 368
References 369
Websites 370
Section 7 International Case Studies 371
Chapter 27 An Overview of Management Issues in Developing a Sustainable Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Service Delivery in Nigeria 373
David Oloke and Dayo Olugboye
27.1 Introduction 373
27.2 Background on WASH Development 374
27.3 Situation of WASH in Nigeria 376
27.4 Sanitation and Hygiene 377
27.5 New Approach to Rural Sanitation 379
27.6 The Sanitation Ladder Concept 379
27.7 Management and Sustainability of WASH facilities 380
27.8 Rural WASH in Nigeria 382
27.9 Conclusions 385
References 386
Chapter 28 Balancing Flood Risk and Water Scarcity of the Asian Delta Regions 389
Jessica E. Lamond
28.1 Introduction 389
28.2 Characteristics of Flooding in Asia 390
28.3 Approaches to Risk Reduction 392
28.4 Flood and Water Management in the Delta City of Jakarta, Indonesia 395
28.5 Conclusions 398
References 399
Section 8 Summary of the Book 401
Chapter 29 Water Resources Challenges - Penury and Peace 403
Susanne M. Charlesworth and Colin A. Booth
29.1 Introduction 403
29.2 Insights Gathered from the Chapters of this Book 404
29.3 Dialogue on International Water Resources Challenges 404
29.4 Conclusions 406
References 406
Index 407
1
Water Resources: Balancing too Little Versus too Much
Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth
1.1 Introduction
Why are we told to conserve water supplies and alter our attitudes towards water usage, yet our homes and businesses are increasing inundated with floodwaters? This is a question that is common to many communities in many counties around the world and is an ever-increasing issue being raised in the United Kingdom (Charlesworth and Booth, 2012).
1.2 Too Little Versus too Much
Being curtailed by a restricted water usage order, whilst standing knee-deep in floodwater inside your home is a confusing and perplexing scenario for society to comprehend – particularly when homeowners could be fined for using a hosepipe to clean out and sanitise their home after the destruction and devastation of a flood.
In the summer of 2010, with only ~300 mm of rain falling in several months and reservoirs at less than half their usual capacity, the water company for north-west England (United Utilities Plc) gained permission in early July 2010 for a drought order to restrict nonessential use of water for seven million homes in Cheshire, Lancashire, Greater Manchester, Merseyside and parts of Cumbria. However, within a matter of days of the restriction being imposed, residents in parts of Lancashire (Preston, Leyland, Ribbleton, Lostock Hall, Bamber Bridge and Coppull) and Merseyside (Bootle, Seaforth, West Derby and Bromorough) were inundated with floodwater after torrential rain (~50 mm in one hour) caused flash flooding. However, the drought order remained in place for many weeks later until mid August 2010 and, during which time, anybody caught breaching the ban would have be fined £1000 (~$1600 USD or ~ €1200 EUR). It is estimated that the water company saved about three billion litres of water during the drought order but the homes and businesses affected by the flooding were inconvenienced for many months later. This scenario highlights the problematic nature of attempting to report drought conditions to the general public so they will curb their water usage demands, when media reports are also screening the trauma and ruin of water excesses.
It would be wrong to have expected the water company to have envisaged or even anticipated the intensity of future rainfall events across its region and, furthermore, the rainfall did not bolster supplies because it fell in isolated places away from the main reservoirs. The company’s decision to impose a drought order was an attempt to marry-up likely water demand with probable water availability, so as to maintain a regular and uninterrupted supply for its customers. However, the scenario clearly highlights the fact that water resources management decision-making is a complicated matter, which encompasses reliance upon nature to assist in the prediction of unknown rainfall events. Traditionally, it has been justifiable to assume that summer months will be warmer and drier than the other seasons. Unfortunately, for whatever reasons (and it is not our intention to persuade you to believe or disbelieve the climate change agenda; see Committee on Climate Change, 2012), there seems an ever-increasing shift in climate patterns towards extreme weather events with impacts that appear to be exacerbated by human activities in the built environment arena. As a result, this is causing widespread droughts and flooding to be commonplace for some countries. The following are examples.
Australia, the driest continent on Earth, is no stranger to drought conditions and through a host of measures they have dramatically reduced their water consumption over the last decade to address the issue. However, the Queensland floods in January 2011 served as a reminder that their highly variable climatic pattern of rainfall can have devastating effects (floodwater covered the equivalent area of France and Germany) on the coastal cities and towns, and their communities. In response, it has been proposed that new dams should be constructed to mitigate flooding and to provide a water resource for the growing population.
Many of the southern states of the United States are plagued by drought and flooding. New Orleans will always be remembered for the destruction caused by Hurricane Katrina (August 2005). However, by late 2011 and early 2012, much of the States of Louisiana and Mississippi were suffering extreme drought conditions. That was until heavy rainfalls brought ~180 mm to Louisiana State and ~250 mm to Mississippi State, causing flooding in many places. Elsewhere, in the State of Georgia, the City of Atlanta experienced its worst drought in living memory in 2007, yet within two years (September 2009) the city experienced an unprecedented 500-year flood event. Ever-demanding population growth and increasing urbanisation were highlighted as the precursors for these events.
Poorly maintained drainage systems were fundamental in causing flash flooding in Argentina’s capital city, Buenos Aires, during February 2012, when torrential rains fell. However, the surrounding province, which suffered a lack of rainfall at this time, remained in drought for many months, until it rained ~200 mm in one night and caused extensive flooding (700 000 hectares) to the towns around Bolivar.
Many African nations are listed by the United Nations as being in a state of water stress (1700 m3 per person) or scarcity (1000 m3 per person). Ghana, like many other African countries, contends with the challenges of delivering a potable supply of water for its population, providing water for food production and growing its economy, confined within the constraints of its limited water resources. However, urban flooding in Ghana is becoming more frequent (February 2011, June 2011, October 2011) and with even greater impacts on communities and businesses.
India is a vast nation with extremes of water shortage and flooding. For instance, in 2002, more than 40 thousand villages in the State of Rajasthan were drought-stricken yet many millions of people in the States of Assam and Bihar were deep in floodwaters. Both scenarios caused suffering and the widespread destruction and failure of crops, together with associated poverty. Nearby, Pakistan was devastated by catastrophic floods (July 2010), which left some 20 million people homeless. Yet, in early 2012, many of the small communities neighbouring the River Indus were now suffering water shortages and were unable to irrigate their crops. Changes in glacial meltwater flows and upstream diversions were identified as compounding water resource issues and driving people into poverty. However, months later (August 2012) those same communities were once again forced from their houses when excessive rainfall caused the river to burst its banks and destroy many of their homes.
Elsewhere, also during August 2012, more than a million people were affected by flooding in the Philippine’s capital, Manila, when two weeks’ worth of rain fell in just 24 hours. As a consequence, about half the city was submerged with water up to 3–4 metres deep in places, which meant travel was impossible and some victims were stranded on the roofs of buildings. However, the memory of an earlier event in 2009 meant many people were well prepared and more organised when asked to evacuate.
Thailand was devastated in 2011 when it suffered its worst floods for several decades. Hundreds of people were killed, several millions of people were affected and the economic cost was estimated to be tens of billions of pounds (close behind Hurricane Katrina). However, several months later, 50 of its provinces were facing drought conditions. Nearby, severe drought also affected North Korea until heavy rains and flooding caused widespread damage, the deaths of >100 people, many thousands of people left homeless and a similar number of people in the City of Anju were left without potable water supplies (August 2012).
China has a water resources divide. The northern plain, with megacities such as Beijing and Tianjin, has endured severe water shortages to such an extent that reservoirs have diminished to only puddles (e.g. Shandong Province) and, as a consequence, to meet demand, groundwater aquifers are being abstracted faster than they can be replenished. In contrast, southern China is commonly afflicted by floodwaters. For instance, flooding in Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan and Hubei Provinces (June 2011) caused enormous suffering and infrastructure damage, with many roads, bridges and buildings destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people evacuated and many thousands of people left stranded. Recognising the imbalance of its water resources, the government is funding (~£37 billion) the North–South Water Project to build a series of massive pipes and canals to transfer water to where it is most needed.
Elsewhere, during June 2011, storms caused flooding in Hamburg, Germany, which inundated buildings and immobilised transport links. The rainfall, however, was welcomed because the country experienced its driest spring months on record. The previous year in Germany had brought extreme heat and drought (July 2010), yet it also brought the wettest August on record.
Spain has been a recent victim to both droughts and flash flooding. Following months of drought and scorching temperatures, the Andalucian Provinces of Almeria, Malaga and Murcia were inundated by a colossal amount of rainfall in only a few hours (September 2012). Such a large amount of rain in a short time meant streets were...
