
Engineering for Sustainable Development
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AN AUTHORITATIVE AND COMPLETE GUIDE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ENGINEERING
In Engineering for Sustainable Development: Theory and Practice, a team of distinguished academics deliver a comprehensive, education-focused discussion on sustainable engineering, bridging the gap between theory and practice by drawing upon illuminating case studies and the latest cutting-edge research. In the book, readers will find an introduction to the sustainable development agenda and sustainable technology development, as well as practical methods and tools for the development and implementation of sustainable engineering solutions. The book highlights the critical role of engineers and the engineering profession in providing sustainability leadership as well as important future-focused solutions to support engineering global sustainable development.
The book offers a wide range of civil, mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineering industry applications. Readers will also benefit from:
* A thorough introduction to contemporary sustainability challenges in the engineering discipline
* Comprehensive discussions of sustainability assessment tools, including triple bottom line assessment (TBL) and the environmental life cycle assessment (LCA)
* In-depth examinations of sustainable engineering strategies, including cleaner production and eco-efficiency methods and environmental management systems
* Detailed review of green engineering principles and industrial symbiosis in engineering application.
* A link between product stewardship and the design for the environment
Perfect for graduate and senior undergraduate students in any engineering discipline, Engineering for Sustainable Development: Theory and Practice will also earn a place in the libraries of consultants and engineers in industry and government with a personal or professional interest in sustainability management.
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Persons
Wahidul K. Biswas is an Associate Professor in the Sustainable Engineering Group in the School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at Curtin University in Australia. His teaching and research is focused on life cycle engineering, sustainability assessment of engineering solutions, green engineering, and industrial ecology.
Michele John is the Director of the Sustainable Engineering Group at Curtin University in Australia. Her teaching and research is focused on the development of applied sustainable engineering research and the extension of sustainable engineering education.
Content
Preface xv
Part I Challenges in Sustainable Engineering 1
1 Sustainability Challenges 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Weak Sustainability vs Strong Sustainability 6
1.3 Utility vs Throughput 8
1.4 Relative Scarcity vs Absolute Scarcity 10
1.5 Global/International Sustainability Agenda 10
1.6 Engineering Sustainability 12
1.7 IPAT 19
1.8 Environmental Kuznets Curves 20
1.9 Impact of Engineering Innovation on Earth's Carrying Capacity 21
1.10 Engineering Challenges in Reducing Ecological Footprint 22
1.11 Sustainability Implications of Engineering Design 24
1.12 Engineering Catastrophes 27
1.13 Existential Risks from Engineering Activities in the Twenty-First Century 30
1.13.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 30
1.13.2 Green Technologies 32
1.14 TheWay Forward 34
References 35
Part II Sustainability Assessment Tools 41
2 Quantifying Sustainability - Triple Bottom Line Assessment 43
2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 Triple Bottom Line 44
2.2.1 The Economic Bottom Line 44
2.2.2 Environmental Bottom Line 44
2.2.3 The Social Bottom Line 45
2.3 Characteristics of Indicators 46
2.4 How Do You Develop an Indicator? 47
2.5 Selection of Indicators 48
2.6 Participatory Approaches in Indicator Development 48
2.7 Description of Steps for Indicator Development 49
2.7.1 Step 1: Preliminary Selection of Indicators 49
2.7.2 Step 2: Questionnaire Design and Development 49
2.7.3 Step 3: Online Survey Development 49
2.7.4 Step 4: Participant Selection 49
2.7.5 Step 5: Final Selection of Indicators and Calculation of Their Weights 50
2.8 Sustainability Assessment Framework 53
2.8.1 Expert Survey 54
2.8.2 Stakeholders Survey 58
2.9 TBL Assessment for Bench Marking Purposes 60
2.10 Conclusions 61
References 62
3 Life Cycle Assessment for TBL Assessment - I 63
3.1 Life Cycle Thinking 63
3.2 Life Cycle Assessment 64
3.3 Environmental Life Cycle Assessment 65
3.3.1 Application of ELCA 66
3.3.2 ISO 14040-44 for Life Cycle Assessment 68
3.3.2.1 Step 1: Goal and Scope Definition 68
3.3.2.2 Step 2: Inventory Analysis 71
3.3.2.3 Step 3: Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 72
3.3.2.4 Step 4: Interpretation 87
3.4 Allocation Method 87
3.5 Type of LCA 91
3.6 Uncertainty Analysis in LCA 92
3.7 Environmental Product Declaration 95
References 103
4 Economic and Social Life Cycle Assessment 107
4.1 Economic and Social Life Cycle Assessment 107
4.2 Life Cycle Costing 108
4.2.1 Discounted Cash Flow Analysis 110
4.2.2 Internalisation of External Costs 117
4.3 Social Life Cycle Assessment 120
4.3.1 Step 1: Goal and Scope Definition 121
4.3.2 Step 2: Life Cycle Inventory 123
4.3.3 Step 3: Life Cycle Social Impact 123
4.3.4 Step 4: Interpretation 124
4.4 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment 128
References 130
Part III Sustainable Engineering Solutions 131
5 Sustainable Engineering Strategies 133
5.1 Engineering Strategies for Sustainable Development 133
5.2 Cleaner Production Strategies 134
5.2.1 Good Housekeeping 135
5.2.2 Input Substitution 136
5.2.3 Technology Modification 137
5.2.4 Product Modification 138
5.2.5 On Site Recovery/Recycling 138
5.3 Fuji Xerox Case Study - Integration of Five CPS 139
5.4 Business Case Benefits of Cleaner Production 140
5.5 Cleaner Production Assessment 140
5.5.1 Planning and Organisation 140
5.5.2 Assessment 141
5.5.3 Feasibility Studies 144
5.5.4 Implementation and Continuation 148
5.6 Eco-efficiency 150
5.6.1 Key Outcomes of Eco-efficiency 152
5.6.2 Eco-efficiency Portfolio Analysis in Choosing Eco-efficient Options 152
5.7 Environmental Management Systems 157
5.7.1 Aims of an EMS 160
5.7.2 A Basic EMS Framework: Plan, Do Check, Review 161
5.7.3 Interested Parties 161
5.7.4 Benefits of an EMS 162
5.8 Conclusions 164
References 165
6 Industrial Ecology 167
6.1 What Is Industrial Ecology? 167
6.2 Application of Industrial Ecology 168
6.3 Regional Synergies/Industrial Symbiosis 169
6.4 How Does It Happen? 172
6.5 Types of Industrial Symbiosis 173
6.6 Challenges in By-Product Reuse 179
6.7 What Is an Eco Industrial Park? 180
6.8 Practice Examples 185
6.8.1 Development of an EIP 185
6.8.2 Industrial Symbiosis in an Industrial Area 186
6.9 Industrial Symbiosis in Kwinana Industrial Area 187
6.9.1 Conclusions 187
References 189
7 Green Engineering 191
7.1 What Is Green Engineering? 191
7.1.1 Minimise 192
7.1.2 Substitute 192
7.1.3 Moderate 193
7.1.4 Simplify 193
7.2 Principles of Green Engineering 194
7.2.1 Inherent Rather than Circumstantial 194
7.2.2 Prevention Rather than Treatment 194
7.2.3 Design for Separation 194
7.2.4 Maximise Mass, Energy, Space, and Time Efficiency 195
7.2.5 Output-Pulled vs Input-Pushed 195
7.2.6 Conserve Complexity 196
7.2.7 Durability Rather than Immortality 196
7.2.8 Meet Need, Minimise Excess 197
7.2.9 Minimise Material Diversity 197
7.2.10 Integration and Interconnectivity 197
7.2.11 Material and Energy Inputs Should Be Renewable Rather than Depleting 198
7.2.12 Products, Processes, and Systems Should Be Designed for Performance in a Commercial 'After Life' 198
7.3 Application of Green Engineering 198
7.3.1 Chemical 199
7.3.1.1 PreventWaste 199
7.3.1.2 Maximise Atom Economy 200
7.3.1.3 Design Safer Chemicals and Products 201
7.3.1.4 Use Safer Solvents and Reaction Conditions 201
7.3.1.5 Use Renewable Feedstocks 202
7.3.1.6 Avoid Chemical Derivatives 203
7.3.1.7 Use Catalysts 203
7.3.1.8 Increase Energy Efficiency 203
7.3.1.9 Design Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses 203
7.3.1.10 Design Chemicals and Products to Degrade After Use 204
7.3.1.11 Analyse in Real Time to Prevent Pollution 204
7.3.1.12 Minimise the Potential for Accidents 204
7.3.2 Sustainable Materials 206
7.3.2.1 Applications of Composite Materials 208
7.3.2.2 The Positives and Negatives of Composite Materials 209
7.3.2.3 Bio-Bricks 209
7.3.3 Heat Recovery 210
7.3.3.1 Temperature Classification 211
7.3.3.2 Heat Recovery Technologies 213
7.3.3.3 The Positives and Negatives ofWaste Heat Recovery 217
References 217
8 Design for the Environment 221
8.1 Introduction 221
8.2 Design for the Environment 221
8.3 Benefits of Design for the Environment 223
8.3.1 Economic Benefits 223
8.3.2 Operational Benefits 224
8.3.3 Marketing Benefits 225
8.4 Challenges Associated with Design for the Environment 225
8.5 Life Cycle Design Guidelines 228
8.6 Practice Examples 233
8.6.1 Design for Disassembly 233
8.6.2 The Life Cycle Benefits of Remanufacturing Strategies 236
8.7 ZeroWaste 240
8.7.1 Waste Diversion Rate 240
8.7.2 ZeroWaste Index 241
8.8 Circular Economy 243
8.8.1 Material Flow Analysis 245
8.8.2 Practice Example 247
8.9 Extended Producer Responsibilities 252
References 254
9 Sustainable Energy 257
9.1 Introduction 257
9.2 Energy, Environment, Economy, and Society 258
9.2.1 Energy and the Economy 258
9.2.2 Energy and the Environment 260
9.3 Sustainable Energy 261
9.4 Pathways Forward 265
9.4.1 Deployment of Renewable Energy 265
9.4.2 Improvements to Fossil Fuel Based Power Generation 266
9.4.3 Plug in Electric Vehicles 269
9.4.4 Green Hydrogen Economy 271
9.4.5 Smart Grid 273
9.4.6 Development of Efficient Energy Storage Technologies 274
9.4.7 Energy Storage and the Californian "Duck Curve" 279
9.4.8 Sustainability in Small-Scale Power Generation 280
9.4.8.1 Types of Decentralised Electricity Generation System 281
9.4.9 Blockchain for Sustainable Energy Solutions 284
9.4.10 Waste Heat Recovery 285
9.4.11 Carbon Capture Technologies 286
9.4.11.1 Post Combustion Capture 286
9.4.11.2 Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 287
9.4.12 Demand-side Management 288
9.4.12.1 National Perspective 289
9.4.12.2 User Perspective 290
9.4.12.3 CO2 Mitigation per Unit of Incremental Cost 290
9.5 Practice Example 291
9.5.1 Step 1 291
9.5.2 Step 2 294
9.5.3 Step 3 294
9.5.4 Step 4 295
9.5.5 Step 5 296
9.5.6 Step 6 296
9.5.7 Step 7 297
9.6 Life Cycle Energy Assessment 297
9.7 Reference Energy System 298
9.8 Conclusions 301
References 301
Part IV Outcomes 307
10 Engineering for Sustainable Development 309
10.1 Introduction 309
10.2 Sustainable Production and Consumption 309
10.3 Factor X 311
10.4 Climate Change Challenges 314
10.5 Water Challenges 320
10.6 Energy Challenges 321
10.7 Circular Economy and Dematerialisation 322
10.8 Engineering Ethics 324
10.8.1 Engineers Australia's Sustainability Policy - Practices 326
References 327
Index 331
1
Sustainability Challenges
1.1 Introduction
Sustainability is the goal or endpoint of a process known as (ecologically) sustainable development. Sustainable development consists of a large number of pathways to reach this endpoint that sees a balance between the provision of ecosystem services, and human access to natural resources to meet the basic needs of life. Engineering sustainability challenges are focused on managing this challenge and coming up with innovative technological solutions to help sustain the earth, given the fact that the earth's existing resources will be inadequate in meeting the demands of future estimated population growth. The latest data from the global footprint network suggests that the humanity used an equivalent of 1.7 earths in 2016 (Vandermaesen et al. 2019), while the United Nations predicted that the global population will increase from 7.7 billion in 2019 to 11.2 billion by the end of this century (United Nations 2020). At the rate at which we consume the earth resources, future generations will require approximately (1.7 × 11.2/7.7) or 2.4 planets to provide equivalent resources by the end of this century. However, we only have one planet.
Worldwide human population growth has been supported by the industrial revolution and the invention of steam engine in the eighteenth century and mass production. This industrial revolution gave birth to our modern civilization and systematically improved living standards resulting in a population explosion from 0.5 to 7.7 billion only over 253 years (1776-2019) (Cilluffo and Ruiz 2019). The exploitation of minerals, fuels, biomass, and rocks for transport, agriculture, building, and manufacturing increased rapidly during this time to deliver the goods and services necessary to support the growth of modern civilization. Technologies have advanced over these years significantly to exploit rare-earth materials and scarce resources to meet the growing demand of an increasing population and to run the modern economy. The scarcity of important materials that are limited resources is only now being understood (Whittingham 2011).
Humanity currently thus uses resources 1.75 times faster than they can be regenerated by nature or provided by our planet (GFN 2019). Apart from population growth, factors which are causing the rapid decline of the earth's resources are our increased dependences on non-renewable resources, energy and material intensive technologies, and uncontrolled production and consumption. Global demand for materials has increased 10-fold since the beginning of the twentieth century and is set to double again by 2030, compared with 2010 (European Commission 2020). Resource producers have been increasingly able to deploy a range of technological options in their operations, even mining and drilling in places that were once inaccessible, increasing the efficiency of extraction techniques, switching to predictive maintenance, and using sophisticated modelling tools to identify, extract, and manage resources. The major emphasis has been on economic growth to meet the demands of a growing population, technological progress based on throughput-increasing (or resource exploitation) without consideration of the bio-physical limits of our non-renewable resources (e.g. coal, gas, ore, rocks). These resources require hundreds of thousands of years to form below the earth, and it raises questions as to what will happen to future generations when all finite non-renewable resources are exhausted due to uncontrolled production and consumption. In addition to the exponential growth of resource use, technology that is used for converting earth resources to products (e.g. construction, automobiles, electronic items) and services (e.g. electricity, internet, transportation, communication system, water supply) to meet our growing demands have resulted in emissions of global warming gases (mainly CO2). The consequence of global warming includes flooding, increased bushfire, and the destruction of ecosystems. By 2050, between 70% and 80% of all people are expected to live in urban areas (United Nation 2018), which are resource intensive and artificial environments made by man, to further improve living standards. The engineering challenge is to minimise land use and conserve resources whilst meeting the demands of the world population through energy efficient buildings, water conservation, compact cities, and efficient transportation systems in our built environment.
Population control, rapid technological innovation, and behavioural change are also required to enhance resource efficiency. It is now crucial for the present generation to change their behaviour and mindsets, which will enable them to sustain adequate resources for future generations (inter-generational equity). According to the Brundtland report (1987), 'Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'. The widely used Brundtland's definition on sustainable development, was published in 'Our Common Future' in 1987.
While population density of developed nations is far less than that of developing nations, overconsumption by the former has already exceeded their bio-capacity resulting in their need to source resources from developing nations. The UN Development Program reports that the richest 20% of the world's population consume 86% of the world's resources while the poorest 80% consume just 14% (UN 1999). This highlights the intra-generational social equity aspects of sustainability and the increased gap between rich and poor people. The rapid progress in technology has fuelled this social inequality. According to David Grusky, Director of Stanford's Center on Poverty and Inequality, 'One of the largest and most prominent debates in social sciences is the role of technology in inequality' (Rotman 2014). The biggest social inequity is that the technology-driven economy greatly favours a small group of people by amplifying their inherent skills and wealth. Human capital being continuously replaced with man-made capital (e.g. self-service cash register, food processors) has increased unemployment. Increased unemployment on the other hand increased social problems, such as poverty, crime, corruption, and domestic violence.
Secondly, technologies have not only enabled wealthy nations to control world resources but have also increased the overconsumption (luxurious pollutions), which is responsible for further environmental degradation. Poverty in a poor nation that causes environmental degradation is known as the pollution for the survival. For example, many children in developing nations are sent outside to collect low grade fuels like leaves and twigs as their parents cannot afford to purchase high quality fuel like gas or wood. Therefore, their children do not go to school spending the whole day gathering fuels to meet the daily cooking energy demand. The collection of low grade fuels not only affects the children's education but also causes ecological imbalance by depriving soil from nutrient rich organic matter.
Thirdly, sea level rise (SLR) due to global warming will affect a large portion of land of developing nations in densely populated countries in the Asia Pacific region.
Planned obsolescence of business strategy in recent times have made technologies obsolete, unfashionable or no longer usable before their natural end of life (EoL), which has created unsustainable consumption. For at least half a century, the mainstream fashion industry has purposely produced goods of inferior quality to increase sales to gain short term financial benefits. In essence, it means that a company is deliberately designing and manufacturing products with a shorter life span, by making them non-functional or unfashionable earlier than necessary and increasing the waste sink if these items are not designed for disassembly or reuse or remanufacturing.
Addressing inter- and intra-generational social inequities requires a reduction in the investment in unnecessary luxury items, controlled economic growth, sustainable behaviour and life style changes, and to design technology/products for repurposing and dematerialisation (e.g. accessing materials online reduced to need of hard copies, virtual conferences reduce travelling). A paradigm shift is urgently necessary to switch from resource intensive technologies that are currently being used (e.g. power plant, car, infrastructure) to more resource saving technologies (e.g. replacing a new engine with a remanufactured engine, super light car with reduced fuel consumption reduces long run costs and emissions). Secondly, it is important to encourage the technological race to enhance both inter- and intra-generational social equity. More dependence on technology means we need more energy and material resources to produce, operate, and maintain them in an increasingly resources scarce world. We need to achieve a balance between technology and human capital for enhancing intra-generational social equity while maintaining economic growth. In a nut shell, social equity means 'equal opportunity of access to basic needs' for all people on earth.
Innovative technological design for converting EoL product to new product will reduce land, energy, and the material consumption associated with virgin material...
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