Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
Description
Broad coverage of digital product creation, from design to manufacture and process optimization
This book addresses the need to provide up-to-date coverage of current CAD/CAM usage and implementation. It covers, in one source, the entire design-to-manufacture process, reflecting the industry trend to further integrate CAD and CAM into a single, unified process. It also updates the computer aided design theory and methods in modern manufacturing systems and examines the most advanced computer-aided tools used in digital manufacturing.
Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing consists of three parts. The first part on Computer Aided Design (CAD) offers the chapters on Geometric Modelling; Knowledge Based Engineering; Platforming Technology; Reverse Engineering; and Motion Simulation. The second part on Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) covers Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing; Computer Aided Fixture Design; Computer Aided Manufacturing; Simulation of Manufacturing Processes; and Computer Aided Design of Tools, Dies and Molds (TDM). The final part includes the chapters on Digital Manufacturing; Additive Manufacturing; and Design for Sustainability. The book is also featured for
- being uniquely structured to classify and align engineering disciplines and computer aided technologies from the perspective of the design needs in whole product life cycles,
- utilizing a comprehensive Solidworks package (add-ins, toolbox, and library) to showcase the most critical functionalities of modern computer aided tools, and
- presenting real-world design projects and case studies so that readers can gain CAD and CAM problem-solving skills upon the CAD/CAM theory.
Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing is an ideal textbook for undergraduate and graduate students in mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, and industrial engineering. It can also be used as a technical reference for researchers and engineers in mechanical and manufacturing engineering or computer-aided technologies.
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Persons
Zhuming Bi, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at Purdue University in Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA. He has over 30 years of experience in Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM).
Xiaoqin Wang, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the School of Mechanical Engineering at Nanjing University of Science and Technology in Nanjing, China. Her research background is in Computer Aided Design, Dynamics, Vibration Impact, and Noise Control. She has been teaching computer-aided design and drawing for 20 years.
Content
Series Preface xvii
Preface xix
About the Companion Website xxi
1 Computers in Manufacturing 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Importance of Manufacturing 1
1.1.2 Scale and Complexity of Manufacturing 2
1.1.3 Human Roles in Manufacturing 4
1.1.4 Computers in Advanced Manufacturing 6
1.2 Computer Aided Technologies (CATs) 7
1.3 CATs for Engineering Designs 10
1.3.1 Engineering Design in a Manufacturing System 10
1.3.2 Importance of Engineering Design 10
1.3.3 Types of Design Activities 12
1.3.4 Human Versus Computers 13
1.3.5 Human and Machine Interactions 14
1.4 Architecture of Computer Aided Systems 15
1.4.1 Hardware Components 15
1.4.2 Computer Software Systems 17
1.4.3 Servers, Networking, and Cloud Technologies 18
1.5 Computer Aided Technologies in Manufacturing 20
1.6 Limitation of the Existing Manufacturing Engineering Curriculum 22
1.7 Course Framework for Digital Manufacturing 24
1.8 Design of the CAD/CAM Course 25
1.8.1 Existing Design of the CAD/CAM Course 26
1.8.2 Customization of the CAD/CAM Course 27
1.9 Summary 28
1.10 Review Questions 29
References 30
Part I Computer Aided Design (CAD) 35
2 Computer Aided Geometric Modelling 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Basic Elements in Geometry 38
2.2.1 Coordinate Systems 39
2.2.2 Reference Points, Lines, and Planes 40
2.2.3 Coordinate Transformation of Points 43
2.2.4 Coordinate Transformation of Objects 43
2.3 Representation of Shapes 53
2.3.1 Basic Data Structure 54
2.3.2 Curvy Geometric Elements 56
2.3.3 Euler-Poincare Law for Solids 63
2.4 Basic Modelling Methods 63
2.4.1 Wireframe Modelling 63
2.4.2 Surface Modelling 64
2.4.3 Boundary Surface Modelling (B-Rep) 65
2.4.4 Space Decomposition 67
2.4.5 Solid Modelling 68
2.5 Feature-Based Modelling with Design Intents 74
2.6 Interactive Feature-Based Modelling Using CAD Tools 77
2.7 Summary 80
2.8 Modelling Problems 81
References 83
3 Knowledge-Based Engineering 85
3.1 Generative Model in Engineering Design 85
3.2 Knowledge-Based Engineering 85
3.3 Parametric Modelling 87
3.3.1 Define Basic Geometric Elements 89
3.3.2 Types of Parameters 95
3.3.3 Geometric Constraints and Relations 99
3.4 Design Intents 101
3.4.1 Default Location and Orientation of a Part 101
3.4.2 First Sketch Plane 103
3.5 Design Equations 103
3.6 Design Tables 105
3.7 Configurations as Part Properties 111
3.8 Design Tables in Assembly Models 114
3.9 Design Tables in Applications 116
3.10 Design Templates 117
3.11 Summary 119
3.12 Design Problems 119
References 122
4 Platform Technologies 125
4.1 Concurrent Engineering (CE) 125
4.1.1 Brief History 125
4.1.2 Needs of CE 125
4.1.3 Challenges of CE Practice 128
4.1.4 Concurrent Engineering (CE) and Continuous Improvement (CI) 128
4.2 Platform Technologies 130
4.3 Modularization 130
4.4 Product Platforms 132
4.5 Product Variants and Platform Technologies 135
4.6 Fundamentals to Platform Technologies 138
4.7 Design Procedure of Product Platforms 142
4.8 Modularization of Products 142
4.8.1 Classification of Functional Requirements (FRs) 143
4.8.2 Module-Based Product Platforms 143
4.8.3 Scale-Based Product Family 145
4.8.4 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches 146
4.9 Platform Leveraging in CI 149
4.10 Evaluation of Product Platforms 153
4.10.1 Step 1. Representation of a Modularized Platform 155
4.10.2 Step 2. Mapping a Modular Architecture for Robot Configurations 156
4.10.3 Step 3. Determine Evaluation Criteria of a Product Platform 156
4.10.4 Step 4. Evaluate Platform Solutions 159
4.11 Computer Aided Tools (CAD) for Platform Technologies 160
4.11.1 Modelling Techniques of Product Variants 163
4.11.2 Design Toolboxes 163
4.11.3 Custom Design Libraries 164
4.12 Summary 165
4.13 Design Projects 166
References 169
5 Computer Aided Reverse Engineering 173
5.1 Introduction 173
5.2 RE as Design Methodology 175
5.3 RE Procedure 178
5.4 Digital Modelling 179
5.4.1 Types of Digital Models 180
5.4.2 Surface Reconstruction 181
5.4.3 Algorithms for Surface Reconstruction 181
5.4.4 Limitations of Existing Algorithms 182
5.4.5 Data Flow in Surface Reconstruction 183
5.4.6 Surface Reconstruction Algorithm 184
5.4.7 Implementation Examples 186
5.5 Hardware Systems for Data Acquisition 188
5.5.1 Classification of Hardware Systems 191
5.5.2 Positioning of Data Acquisition Devices 197
5.5.3 Control of Scanning Processes 199
5.5.4 Available Hardware Systems 200
5.6 Software Systems for Data Processing 201
5.6.1 Data Filtering 201
5.6.2 Data Registration and Integration 204
5.6.3 Feature Detection 205
5.6.4 Surface Reconstruction 205
5.6.5 Surface Simplification 205
5.6.6 Segmentation 206
5.6.7 Available Software Tools 206
5.7 Typical Manufacturing Applications 206
5.8 Computer Aided Reverse Engineering (CARE) 208
5.8.1 Recap to Convert Sensed Data into Polygonal Models 209
5.8.2 ScanTo3D for Generation of Parametric Models 211
5.8.3 RE of Assembled Products 212
5.9 RE - Trend of Development 213
5.10 Summary 213
5.11 Design Project 214
References 215
6 Computer Aided Machine Design 219
6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 General Functional Requirements (FRs) of Machines 222
6.3 Fundamentals of Machine Design 223
6.3.1 Link Types 223
6.3.2 Joint Types and Degrees of Freedom (DoFs) 223
6.3.3 Kinematic Chains 225
6.3.4 Mobility of Mechanical Systems 226
6.4 Kinematic Synthesis 230
6.4.1 Type Synthesis 230
6.4.2 Number Synthesis 230
6.4.3 Dimensional Synthesis 232
6.5 Kinematics 233
6.5.1 Positions of Particles, Links, and Bodies in 2D and 3D Space 233
6.5.2 Motions of Particles, Links, and Bodies 235
6.5.3 Vector-Loop Method for Motion Analysis of a Plane Mechanism 240
6.5.4 Kinematic Modelling Based on Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) Parameters 246
6.5.5 Jacobian Matrix for Velocity Relations 248
6.6 Dynamic Modelling 259
6.6.1 Inertia and Moments of Inertia 259
6.6.2 Newton-Euler Formulation 261
6.6.3 Lagrangian Method 266
6.7 Kinematic and Dynamics Modelling in Virtual Design 269
6.7.1 Motion Simulation 269
6.7.2 Model Preparation 271
6.7.3 Creation of a Simulation Model 271
6.7.4 Define Motion Variables 274
6.7.5 Setting Simulation Parameters 275
6.7.6 Run Simulation and Visualize Motion 275
6.7.7 Analyse Simulation Data 276
6.7.8 Structural Simulation Using Motion Loads 277
6.8 Summary 278
6.9 Design Project 279
References 279
Part II Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) 281
7 Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing 283
7.1 Introduction 283
7.2 Manufacturing System and Components 283
7.2.1 Machine Tools 287
7.2.2 Material Handling Tools 289
7.2.3 Fixtures 289
7.2.4 Assembling Systems and Others 290
7.3 Layouts of Manufacturing Systems 290
7.3.1 Job Shops 290
7.3.2 Flow Shops 291
7.3.3 Project Shops 292
7.3.4 Continuous Production 292
7.3.5 Cellular Manufacturing 294
7.3.6 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) 295
7.3.7 Distributed Manufacturing and Virtual Manufacturing 297
7.3.8 Hardware Reconfiguration Versus System Layout 302
7.4 Group Technology (GT) 303
7.4.1 Visual Inspection 304
7.4.2 Product Classification and Coding 305
7.4.3 Production Flow Analysis 317
7.5 Cellular Manufacturing 320
7.6 Summary 325
7.7 Design Problems 326
References 328
8 Computer Aided Fixture Design 331
8.1 Introduction 331
8.2 Fixtures in Processes of Discrete Manufacturing 333
8.3 Fixtures and Jigs 335
8.4 Functional Requirements (FRs) of Fixtures 337
8.5 Fundamentals of Fixture Design 338
8.5.1 3-2-1 Principle 339
8.5.2 Axioms for Geometric Control 339
8.5.3 Axioms for Dimensional Control 341
8.5.4 Axioms for Mechanical Control 341
8.5.5 Fixturing Cylindrical Workpiece 342
8.5.6 Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis 342
8.6 Types and Elements of Fixture Systems 344
8.6.1 Supports 345
8.6.2 Types of Fixture Systems 345
8.6.3 Locators 347
8.6.4 Clamps 348
8.6.5 Flexible Fixtures 348
8.7 Procedure of Fixture Design 354
8.8 Computer Aided Fixture Design 357
8.8.1 Fixture Design Library 357
8.8.2 Interference Detection 359
8.8.3 Accessibility Analysis 360
8.8.4 Analysis of Deformation and Accuracy 361
8.9 Summary 361
8.10 Design Projects 362
References 363
9 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) 367
9.1 Introduction 367
9.1.1 Human and Machines in Manufacturing 368
9.1.2 Automation in Manufacturing 371
9.1.3 Automated Decision-Making Supports 372
9.1.4 Automation in Manufacturing Execution Systems (MESs) 373
9.2 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) 375
9.2.1 Numerically Controlled (NC) Machine Tools 375
9.2.2 Industrial Robots 376
9.2.3 Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRS) 376
9.2.4 Flexible Fixture Systems (FFSs) 377
9.2.5 Coordinate Measurement Machines (CMMs) 377
9.2.6 Automated Material Handling Systems (AMHSs) 378
9.3 Numerical Control (NC) Machine Tools 378
9.3.1 Basics of Numerical Control (NC) 380
9.4 Machining Processes 382
9.5 Fundamentals of Machining Programming 384
9.5.1 Procedure of Machining Programming 384
9.5.2 World Axis Standards 385
9.5.3 Default Coordinate Planes 387
9.5.4 Part Reference Zero (PRZ) 390
9.5.5 Absolute and Incremental Coordinates 390
9.5.6 Types of Motion Paths 392
9.5.7 Programming Methods 394
9.5.8 Automatically Programmed Tools (APT) 396
9.6 Computer Aided Manufacturing 398
9.6.1 Main Tasks of CNC Programming 398
9.6.2 Motion of Cutting Tools 398
9.6.3 Algorithms in NC Programming 399
9.6.4 Program Structure 400
9.6.5 Programming Language G-Code 401
9.7 Example of CAM Tool - HSMWorks 405
9.8 Summary 407
9.9 Design Problems 408
9.10 Design Project 409
References 410
10 Simulation of Manufacturing Processes 413
10.1 Introduction 413
10.2 Manufacturing Processes 413
10.3 Shaping Processes 416
10.4 Manufacturing Processes - Designing and Planning 417
10.5 Procedure of Manufacturing Processes Planning 418
10.6 Casting Processes 420
10.6.1 Casting Materials and Products 420
10.6.2 Fundamental of Casting Processes 422
10.6.3 Design for Manufacturing (DFM) for Casting Processes 429
10.6.4 Steps in Casting Processes 430
10.6.5 Components in a Casting System 430
10.6.6 Simulation of Casting Processes 432
10.7 Injection Moulding Processes 432
10.7.1 Injection Moulding Machine 433
10.7.2 Steps in the Injection Moulding Process 434
10.7.3 Temperature and Pressure for Moldability 435
10.7.4 Procedure of the Injection Moulding System 436
10.7.5 Other Design Considerations 437
10.8 Mould Filling Analysis 439
10.8.1 Mould Defects 440
10.9 Mould Flow Analysis Tool - SolidWorks Plastics 443
10.10 Summary 447
10.11 Design Project 447
References 448
11 Computer Aided Design of Tools, Dies, and Moulds (TDMs) 451
11.1 Introduction 451
11.2 Overview of Tools, Dies, and Industrial Moulds (TDMs) 453
11.3 Roles of TDM Industry in Manufacturing 454
11.4 General Requirements of TDM 456
11.4.1 Cost Factors 457
11.4.2 Lead-Time Factors 457
11.4.3 Complexity 458
11.4.4 Precision 458
11.4.5 Quality 459
11.4.6 Materials 459
11.5 Tooling for Injection Moulding 459
11.6 Design of Injection Moulding Systems 460
11.6.1 Number of Cavities 460
11.6.2 Runner Systems 462
11.6.3 Geometry of Runners 462
11.6.4 Layout of Runners 464
11.6.5 Branched Runners 465
11.6.6 Sprue Design 466
11.6.7 Design of Gating System 468
11.6.8 Design of Ejection System 471
11.6.9 Design of the Cooling System 472
11.6.10 Moulding Cycle Times 474
11.7 Computer Aided Mould Design 475
11.7.1 Main Components of Mould 475
11.7.2 Mould Tool in SolidWorks 475
11.7.3 Design Procedure 476
11.7.4 Compensation of Shrinkage 477
11.7.5 Draft Analysis 477
11.7.6 Parting Line and Shut-off Planes 479
11.7.7 Parting Surfaces 479
11.7.8 Splitting Mould Components 481
11.7.9 Assembly and Visualization of Moulds 481
11.8 Computer Aided Mould Analysis 483
11.8.1 Thermoformable Materials and Products 483
11.8.2 Compression Moulding 483
11.8.3 Simulation of Compression Moulding 484
11.8.4 Predicating Elongation in SolidWorks 487
11.9 Summary 492
11.10 Design Projects 493
References 493
Part III System Integration 497
12 Digital Manufacturing (DM) 499
12.1 Introduction 499
12.2 Historical Development 500
12.3 Functional Requirements (FRs) of Digital Manufacturing 502
12.3.1 Data Availability, Accessibility, and Information Transparency 502
12.3.2 Integration 503
12.3.3 High-Level Decision-Making Supports 503
12.3.4 Decentralization 504
12.3.5 Reconfigurability, Modularity, and Composability 504
12.3.6 Resiliency 504
12.3.7 Sustainability 505
12.3.8 Evaluation Metrics 505
12.4 System Entropy and Complexity 505
12.5 System Architecture 507
12.5.1 NIST Enterprise Architecture 507
12.5.2 DM Enterprise Architecture 508
12.5.3 Digital Technologies in Different Domains 511
12.5.4 Characteristics of Internet of Things (IoT) Infrastructure 512
12.5.5 Lifecycle and Evolution of EA 516
12.6 Hardware Solutions 517
12.7 Big Data Analytics (BDA) 518
12.7.1 Big Data in DM 519
12.7.2 Big Data Analytics (BDA) 521
12.7.3 Big Data Analytics (BDA) for Digital Manufacturing 521
12.8 Computer Simulation in DM - Simio 522
12.8.1 Modelling Paradigms 523
12.8.2 Object Types and Classes 523
12.8.3 Intelligence - Objects, Events, Logic, Processes, Process Steps, and Elements 525
12.8.4 Case Study of Modelling and Simulation in Simio 526
12.9 Summary 528
12.10 Design Projects 531
References 532
13 Direct and Additive Manufacturing 535
13.1 Introduction 535
13.2 Overview of Additive Manufacturing 536
13.2.1 Historical Development 536
13.2.2 Applications 536
13.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 540
13.3 Types of AM Techniques 542
13.3.1 Vat Photo-Polymerization 543
13.3.2 Powder Bed Fusion 544
13.3.3 Binder Jetting 545
13.3.4 Material Jetting 545
13.3.5 Material Extrusion 546
13.3.6 Sheet Lamination 547
13.3.7 Directed Energy Deposition 547
13.4 AM Processes 549
13.4.1 Preparation of CAD Models 550
13.4.2 Preparation of Tessellated Models 550
13.4.3 Slicing Planning and Visualization 551
13.4.4 Machine Setups 552
13.4.5 Building Process 552
13.4.6 Post-Processing 553
13.4.7 Verification and Validation 554
13.5 Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) 554
13.5.1 Selective Materials and AM Processes 555
13.5.2 Considerations of Adopting AM Technologies 555
13.5.3 Part Features 557
13.5.4 Support Structures 557
13.5.5 Process Parameters 558
13.6 Summary 559
13.7 Design Project 560
References 560
14 Design for Sustainability (D4S) 563
14.1 Introduction 563
14.2 Sustainable Manufacturing 563
14.3 Drivers for Sustainability 565
14.3.1 Shortage of Natural Resources 566
14.3.2 Population Increase 568
14.3.3 Global Warming 569
14.3.4 Pollution 571
14.3.5 Globalized Economy 571
14.4 Manufacturing and Sustainability 572
14.4.1 Natural Resources for Manufacturing 572
14.4.2 Population Increase and Manufacturing 573
14.4.3 Global Warming and Manufacturing 574
14.4.4 Pollution and Manufacturing 574
14.4.5 Manufacturing in a Globalized Economy 574
14.5 Metrics for Sustainable Manufacturing 575
14.6 Reconfigurability for Sustainability 580
14.7 Lean Production for Sustainability 582
14.8 Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) and Design for Sustainability (D4S) 584
14.9 Continuous Improvement for Sustainability 585
14.10 Main Environmental Impact Factors 585
14.10.1 Carbon Footprint 586
14.10.2 Total Energy 586
14.10.3 Air Acidification 586
14.10.4 Water Eutrophication 586
14.11 Computer Aided Tools - SolidWorks Sustainability 586
14.11.1 Material Library 587
14.11.2 Manufacturing Processes and Regions 588
14.11.3 Transportation and Use 591
14.11.4 Material Comparison Tool 592
14.11.5 Costing Analysis in SolidWorks 594
14.12 Summary 594
14.13 Design Project 596
References 596
Index 601
1
Computers in Manufacturing
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Importance of Manufacturing
The life quality of human being relies on the availability of products and services from primary industry, secondary industry, and tertiary industry. According to the three-sector theory (Fisher 1939), the primary industry relates to the economic activities to extract and produce raw materials such as coal, wood, and iron. The secondary industry relates to the economic activities to transfer raw or intermediate materials into goods such as cars, computers, and textiles. The tertiary industry relates to the economic activities to provide services to customers and businesses. The secondary industry supports both the primary and tertiary industries, since the businesses in the secondary industry take the outputs of the primary industry and manufacture finished goods to meet customers' needs in the tertiary industry. In contrast to the wealth distribution or consumption in the tertiary industry, the secondary industry creates new wealth to human society (Kniivila 2018).
A manufacturing system can be very simple or extremely complex. Figure 1.1a shows an example of blacksmithing where some simple farming tools are made from iron (Source Weekly 2012). Figure 1.1b shows an example of a complex car assembly line, which is capable of making Ford Escape cars (Automobile Newsletter 2012). Despite the difference in complexity, both of them are good examples of a manufacturing system since manufacturing refers to the production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation (Wikipedia 2019a). Manufacturing is one of fundamental constitutions of a nation's economy. Manufacturing businesses dominate the secondary industry. Powerful countries in the world are those who take control of the bulk of the global production of manufacturing technologies. Over the past hundreds of years, advancing manufacturing has been the strategic achievement of the developed counties to sustain their national wealth and global power. The importance of manufacturing to a nation has been discussed by numerous of researchers and organizations. For example, a summary of the importance to the USA economy is given by Flows (2016) and Gold (2016) as follows:
- Manufacturers contributed $2.2 trillion with ~12% of gross domestic product (GDP) to the USA economy in 2015.
- The manufacturing multiplier effect is stronger than in other sectors. For $1.00 spent in manufacturing, $1.81 is added to other sectors of the economy. Manufacturing has the highest multiplier effect. Gold (2016) argued that the impact of manufacturing has been greatly underestimated; it is supported by the findings of the Manufacturers Alliance for Productivity and Innovation (MAPI) Foundation that the total impact of manufacturing on the economy should be 32% of GDP and that the full value stream of manufactured goods for final demand was equal to $6.7 trillion in 2016.
- Manufacturing employs sizeable workforces. The manufacturing sector provides ~17.4 million jobs, or over 12.3 million.
- Manufacturing pays premium compensation. Manufacturing workers earnt a high average of $81 289 annually in 2015.
- Manufacturing dominates US exports; the United States is the No. 3 manufacturing exporter.
- The US attracts more investment than other countries and foreign investment in US manufacturing grows; the foreign direct investment in manufacturing exceeded $1.2 trillion in 2015. New technologies allow manufacturers to alter radically the way they innovate, produce, and sell their products moving forward, improving efficiency and competitiveness.
Figure 1.1 A manufacturing system can be very simple or complex (a). Blacksmithing (Source weekly 2012), (b). Ford assembly line at Kansas City (Automobile Newsletter 2012).
1.1.2 Scale and Complexity of Manufacturing
From a system perspective, a manufacturing system can be described by the inputs, outputs, system components, and their relations, as shown in Figure 1.2. The system is modelled in terms of its information flow and materials flow, respectively. System inputs and outputs are involved at the boundaries of a manufacturing system in its surrounding business environment. For example, the materials from suppliers are system inputs and the final products delivered to customers are system outputs. System components include all of the manufacturing resources for designing, manufacturing, and assembling of products as well as other relevant activities such as transportations in the system. In addition, a virtual twin in the information flow is associated with a physical component in the materials flow for decision-making supports of manufacturing businesses.
Figure 1.2 Description of a manufacturing system.
In the evolution of manufacturing technologies, the scale and complexity of manufacturing systems have been growing constantly. Note that both the scale and complexity of a system relates to the number and types of inputs, outputs, and system components that transform inputs to outputs. Figure 1.3 shows the impact of the evolution of system paradigms on the complexity of manufacturing systems (Bi et al. 2008). The evolution of system paradigms is divided into the phases of craft systems, English systems, American systems, lean production, flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs), computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), and sustainable manufacturing.
Figure 1.3 The growth of scale and complexity of manufacturing systems (Bi et al. 2014).
Historically, the manufacturing business began with craft systems where some crude tools were made from objects found in nature. The system inputs were simple objects and the requirements of the products were basic functions. In the 1770s, James Watt improved Thomas Newcomen's steam engines with separate condensers, which triggered the formation of English systems. In an English manufacturing system, machines partially replaced human operators for heavy and repetitive operations, the power supply became an essential part of the manufacturing source, and the production was scaled to make functional products for profit. In the 1800s, Eli Whitney introduced interchangeable parts in manufacturing that allowed all individual pieces of a machine to be produced identically. Thus, mass production became possible, the manufacturing processes began to be distributed, and system inputs in general assembly companies included parts and components. The criteria of system performance were prioritized with productivity and product quality. Mass production in the American system paradigm brought the rapid growth of manufacturing capacities that led to the saturation of manufacturing capacities in comparison with global needs. The global market became so competitive that the profit margin was such that without consideration of cost savings in the manufacturing processes profits would be insufficient to sustain manufacturing business. The lean production paradigm was conceived in Japan to optimize system operation by identifying and eliminating waste in production, thus reducing product cost to compensate for the squeezed profit margin. Most recently, sustainable manufacturing paradigms were developed to optimize manufacturing systems from the perspective of the product life cycle. This was driven by a number of factors, such as global warming, environmental degradation, and scarcity of natural resources. Manufacturing system paradigms are continuously evolving. The trend of the evolution in Figure 1.3 has shown that manufacturing systems are becoming more and more complicated in terms of the number of system parameters, the dependence on system parameters, and their dynamic characteristics with respect to time. The engineering education for human resources must evolve to meet the growth needs of the manufacturing industry.
1.1.3 Human Roles in Manufacturing
Computer aided technologies (CATs) in manufacturing are of the most interest in this book and are widely adopted to replace humans in various manufacturing activities and decision-making supports. To appreciate the applications of CATs, the roles of the human being in manufacturing systems are firstly discussed to explore the possibilities of automated solutions.
As shown in Figure 1.4, the importance of human being in a manufacturing system has been widely discussed. In developing the Purdue system architecture, Li and Williams (1994) classified manufacturing activities into the activities in information/control flow and material flow, respectively. Human resources are needed to accomplish the tasks in both information and material flows. For example, human labourers are commonly seen in an assembly plant to accomplish manual assemblies in the material flow; technicians are needed by small and medium sized companies (SMEs) to generate codes and run computer numerical controls (CNCs) in the information/control flow. From the perspective of a product lifecycle (Ortiz et al. 1999), human resources...
