Aquatic Environmental Bioengineering
Description
Discover the importance of remediation efforts for aquatic ecosystems
Most contamination of water bodies stem from human activity, and the pollution in our water is one of the most important environmental concerns facing future generations. The most significant of these pollutants are halogenated organic compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, radionuclides, metal and metalloids, pharmaceutical drugs, microbial toxins, and flame retardants. With such a vast array of potential contaminants and dangerously cumulating contamination levels in fragile marine environments, reparative action is more essential than ever.
Aquatic Environmental Bioengineering: Monitoring and Remediation of Contamination provides the reader with a map towards environmentally safe and economically feasible technologies to intervene in polluted aquatic ecosystems. The authors suggest a phased approach consisting of site classification and risk assessment, followed by remediation technology selection and implementation. Effective methods for surveying bodies of water are particularly emphasized, and advancements in the development of novel transgenic plants and microbial fuel cells are put forward as effective tools against environmental contamination and industrial wastewater pollution.
Readers will also find:
* A focus on the most recent and cutting-edge research on the topic: photocatalysis, the use of genetically modified organisms, and the use of nanomaterials
* A simple compendium of fundamental concepts in environmental engineering of aquatic ecosystems
* A detailed discussion of the advancement in remote sensing and geographic information (GIS), methodologies that make it possible to conduct large-scale water remediation studies at reasonable cost
The ideal resource for researchers and students of environmental science, plant biotechnology, agricultural science, environmental engineering, and plant sciences, Aquatic Environmental Bioengineering will be a crucial resource for the remediation of contaminants in our aquatic ecosystems.
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Persons
Rouf Ahmad Bhat is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Environmental Science, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Mohammad Yaseen Mir is a Teacher at the Department of School Education, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Gowhar Hamid Dar is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Environmental Science, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Moonisa Aslam Dervash is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Environmental Science, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Content
Preface xi
About the Authors xii
1 Emerging Pollutants Remediation Water Systems: Biomass-Based Technologies 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Adsorption-Based Remediation 3
1.2.1 Biomass 3
1.2.2 Terrestrial and Marine Bioresources 3
1.2.3 Agro-Industrial Wastes 3
1.2.4 Activated Carbons (ACs) 4
1.2.5 Bioresources 4
1.2.6 Agro-Industrial Wastes 4
1.2.7 Activated Sludge (AS) 4
1.3 Bioremediation 4
1.3.1 Phytoremediation 4
1.3.2 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 5
1.3.3 Microbial Remediation 5
1.3.4 Biocoagulants and Bioflocculants 5
1.4 Multi-Element Water Treatment Process 1
1.4.1 Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs): Biodegradation and Membrane Filtration 6
1.4.2 Activated Carbon and Ozone 7
1.5 Views and Recommendations 7
1.6 Conclusion 7
2 Genetic Engineering for Metal Tolerance and Accumulation 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Mechanisms of Metal Uptake and their Transport in Plants 14
2.2.1 Heavy Metals Tolerance (Mechanism) in Plants 15
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Avoidance in Plants 15
2.2.3 Binding of Metal to the Cell Wall 16
2.2.4 Mechanisms of Tolerance in Plants 16
2.3 Phytoremediation Using Genetic Engineering Stress-Tolerant Plants 18
2.3.1 Selenium Accumulation by Plants 20
2.3.2 Genetics of Plants Selenium Accumulation 21
2.3.3 Proteins for Metal Accumulation 24
2.4 Genetically Modified Plants Against Uptake, Tolerance and Detoxification of Heavy Metals 24
2.5 Cadmium Tolerance and Accumulation Mechanisms in Plants 26
2.5.1 Immobilization 27
2.5.2 Chelation Using Organic Acids and Amino Acids 27
2.5.3 Stress Peptide Synthesis 27
2.5.4 Cd Transporters 28
2.5.5 Genetic Analysis of Cadmium Tolerance and Accumulation in Plants 28
2.6 Heavy Metal ATPases (HMA) 30
3 Transgenic Approaches for Field Testing and Risk Assessment 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Transgenic Plants for Environmental Remediation 43
3.3 Degradation Pathways in Plants 44
3.4 Cytochrome P450s for Environmental Perspectives 44
3.5 Transgenic Plants for the Rhizoremediation of Organic Xenobiotics 45
3.6 Transgenic Plants to be Developed for the Phytoremediation of Some Other Priority Pollutants 46
3.7 Potential Genes for Phytoremediation 47
3.8 Hitting Transgenics to the Assessment: Plant Bioremediation 49
3.9 Potential Risks 50
3.9.1 Risk Assessment Theories and Practices 50
3.9.2 Contests Aimed at Multifaceted Risk Valuation 51
3.10 Future Research Guidelines 51
4 Role of RS and GIS in Water Quality Monitoring and Remediation 59
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Scope of RS and GIS in Water Monitoring 60
4.3 Assessment of Certain Impurities in Water With the Aid of RS and GIS 61
4.3.1 Suspended Load 61
4.3.2 Phytoplankton 62
4.3.3 Turbidity 62
4.4 Benefits of RS in Assessment of Water Quality 63
4.4.1 Soil Moisture Mapping for Floods and Droughts 63
4.4.2 Spatially Distributed Crop Water Use Estimation 64
4.4.3 Surface Water Quality Monitoring and Remediation 64
4.4.4 Groundwater Quality Monitoring and Remediation 65
4.5 Future Prospectus of RS and GIS Applications in Water Quality Studies 66
5 Advancement on Bioaugmentation: Strategies for Processing Industry Wastewater 71
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Present Disposal Techniques and their Limitations 73
5.3 Bioaugmentation as an Emerging Strategy 73
5.3.1 Bioaugmentation Principle 75
5.3.2 Cell Bioaugmentation 75
5.3.3 Biological Augmentation as a Tool for Improving the Wastewater Treatment Efficiency 75
5.3.4 Role of Bioaugmentation in Removing Recalcitrant Pollutants from Industrial Wastewater 76
5.4 Bioaugmentation Applications 76
5.4.1 Removal of Compounds 76
5.4.2 Removal of Lignin 77
5.4.3 Pyridine and Quinoline 77
5.4.4 Cyanides 78
5.4.5 Nicotine 78
5.5 Bioaugmentation Technologies and their Limitations 78
5.5.1 Grazing of Protozoans 79
5.5.2 Inoculum Size 79
5.5.3 Bacteriophage Infection 79
5.6 Strategies for Improving the Effectiveness of Bioaugmentation 80
5.6.1 Immobilizing the Cells in Bioaugmentation 80
5.6.2 Quorum Sensing 80
5.6.3 Gene Transfer and Genetically Modified Microorganisms 81
5.7 Bioaugmentation and Nanotechnology 81
5.8 Future Prospects 82
5.9 Conclusion 82
6 Photocatalysis in Relation to Water Remediation 89
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Characteristics of Material 93
6.2.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis 93
6.2.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 94
6.3 Consequence of Ultra Violet/Titanium Dioxide/Hydrogen Peroxide 95
6.3.1 Chlorophenol 95
6.3.2 2, 4-Dichlorophenol 95
6.3.3 2, 4, 6- Trichlorophenol 96
6.4 Obstacles for Applicability 97
6.4.1 Advancement of Photocatalytic Materials 97
6.4.2 Photocatalytic Reactor Design and System Evaluation 97
6.5 Strategies for Improving Research Outcomes 98
7 Biochemical Systems: Cathode Advanced Wastewater Treatment 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Cathodic Catalysis in BES and Implications for Catalyst Design 104
7.2.1 Cathodic Catalysis Characteristic in BES 104
7.2.2 Operation Environment 105
7.2.3 Wastewater Electrolyte 105
7.2.4 Cathode Over Potential and Catalysis in BES 106
7.2.5 Photo-Aided Cathodic Catalysis 106
7.3 Wastewater Treatment 107
7.3.1 Highly Biodegradable Wastewater 107
7.3.2 Complex/Low Biodegradable Wastewater 107
7.3.3 Integrated Process for Additional Treatment 108
7.4 Current Bottlenecks and Challenges for BES 108
7.5 Future Directions 111
8 Nanotechnology: Environmental Sustainable Solutions for Wastewater Treatment 116
8.1 Introduction 116
8.2 Water Nanotechnology 118
8.2.1 Adsorption and Separation 118
8.2.2 Catalysis 118
8.2.3 Disinfection 119
8.2.4 Sensing 119
8.2.5 Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents 119
8.2.6 Metal-Based Nanoadsorbents 120
8.2.7 Polymer-Based Nanoadsorbents 121
8.3 Zeolites 121
8.4 Magnetic Nanocomposites 122
8.5 Nano Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) 122
8.6 Biosorbents 123
8.7 Treatment of Wastewater by Means of Membrane-based Techniques 124
8.8 Nanoparticles for Microbial Control and Disinfection 125
8.9 Antimicrobial Action of Nanoparticles 126
8.10 Potential Applications in Wastewater Treatment 127
8.11 Benefits of Nano-Biotechnology-Based Applications for Water Sustainability 127
8.12 Challenges and Future Outlook 128
9 Biotechnology Intercession in Phytoremediation 138
9.1 Introduction 138
9.2 Genetically Engineered Plants and Phytoremediation 138
9.3 Qualitative Phytoremediators 141
9.4 Biotechnology in Plant Mediated Remediation for Contaminants 141
9.5 Toxic Metals (TMs) 141
9.5.1 Arsenic (As) 142
9.5.2 Mercury (Hg) 143
9.5.3 Organic Pollutants (OPs) 143
9.5.4 Pesticides 144
9.5.5 Oil Spills (OSs) 144
9.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 145
10 Biofilms in Remediation: Current Trends and Future Perspectives 150
10.1 Introduction 150
10.2 Different Methods for Culturing Biofilms In Vitro 152
10.2.1 Static Microtiter Plate Assays 152
10.2.2 Tube Biofilms 152
10.2.3 Colony Biofilms 152
10.2.4 Biofilm Growth on Peg Lids 153
10.2.5 Rotating Disk and Concentric Cylinder Reactors 153
10.5 Methods for Characterization of Biofilms 154
10.5.1 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) 154
10.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 155
10.5.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 155
10.5.4 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 155
10.5.5 X-ray Spectroscopy 155
10.5.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 155
10.6 Biofilm-Based Bioremediation 156
10.7 Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms in Lakes 158
10.8 Conclusion 159
11 Graphene-Based Absorbents for Wastewater Treatment 164
11.1 Introduction 164
11.2 Graphene-Based Materials 165
11.3 Graphene-Polymer Composites 165
11.4 Applications of Graphene as an Adsorbent in Water Remediation 170
11.4.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 171
11.4.2 Phenolic Compounds 172
11.4.3 Pharmaceutical Compounds 173
11.4.4 Pesticides 173
11.4.5 Dyes 174
11.5 Future Scope 175
12 Sewage Sludge: Use in Agriculture Practices 181
12.1 Introduction 181
12.2 Characteristics of Sewage Sludge 18
12.3 Activation of Sewage Sludge 183
12.4 Disposal of Sludge to Land 184
12.5 The Effect of Sludge Application on Soil Properties 185
12.5.1 Physico-Chemical Properties 185
12.5.2 Microbial Parameters of Soil 188
12.5.3 Concentration of Nutrients and the Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge and Soil 191
12.6 Outlines of Nutrients and Harmful Metals in Sludge and Soil 192
12.7 The Accumulation of Nutrients by Crops 193
12.8 Future Views 194
13 Microbial Fuel Cells for the Treatment of Wastewater 203
13.1 Introduction 203
13.2 Biochemical Sustenance of Microbes 204
13.3 Functioning of MFCs 204
13.3.1 Uses of MFCs 205
13.3.2 Wastewater Treatment 205
13.3.3 Power Supply to Underwater Monitoring Devices 205
13.3.4 Power Supply to Remote Sensors 205
13.3.5 BOD Sensing 205
13.3.6 Hydrogen Manufacture 206
13.4 Microbial Fuel Cells Treatment of Wastewater 206
13.5 Microbial Fuel Cell Design 206
13.6 Construction of MFCs 207
13.6.1 Two Cell MFCs 207
13.6.2 Single Compartment MFCs 208
13.7 MFCs and Wastewater Remediation 208
13.7.1 Microbial Fuel Cells for Wastewater Treatment and Energy Generation 209
13.7.2 Treatment of Sewage and Electricity Production by Microbial Fuel Cells 209
13.7.3 Advanced MFCs for Wastewater Treatment 209
13.8 Wastewater Treatment by MFCs Coupled with Peroxicoagulation Process 210
13.9 MFCs and Generation of Bioelectricity 210
13.10 Electricigens in the MFCs 210
13.11 Future Prospects 210
13.12 Conclusion 211
14 Water Resources Planning and Management Paradigm Decision-Making 214
14.1 Introduction 214
14.2 Freshwater Stress 215
14.3 Globalization 215
14.4 Disparity in Supply and Demand 215
14.5 Planning and Management Approaches 3216
14.5.1 Top-Down Approach 216
14.5.2 Bottom-Up Approach 216
14.6 Integrated Water Resources Management 216
14.7 Water Management and Planning: Goals, Strategies, Decisions, and Scenarios 217
14.8 Systems Approaches to Water Resource System Planning and Decision-Making 218
14.9 Analysis and Implementation Framework 218
14.10 Decision-Making 219
Index 222
1
Emerging Pollutants Remediation Water Systems
Biomass-Based Technologies
CHAPTER MENU
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Adsorption-Based Remediation
- 1.3 Bioremediation
- 1.4 Multi-Element Water Treatment Process
- 1.5 Views and Recommendations
- 1.6 Conclusion
1.1 Introduction
Emerging Pollutants (EPs) or pollutants of emerging concern are labels for a class of chemicals that are intrinsically detrimental to the environment but not essentially lethal [1]. This assemblage of chemicals incorporates an extensive assortment of substances including human and veterinary drugs, personal care products (PCPs), disinfection by-products (DBPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), heavy metals, surfactants, pesticides, flame retardants, algal contaminants and hormones besides numerous other groups of chemicals. Throughout the preceding few decades, several investigative programmes have been going on to explore and examine the existence and fate besides ecotoxicology, of a lot of emerging pollutants (EPs). The EPs are sampled out from soils [2], sediments [3], wastewaters plus other aquatic environs [4]. As far as distribution of EPs is concerned traces of these have been reported from practically all the domains of our environment [5]. These EPs have also been found in the bodies of newborn infants proving their grave peril to the well-being of humans and other organisms alike. Normal treatment procedures are incompetent to eliminate these EPs, resulting in their discharge into receiving aquatic environments. However, a thorough and all-encompassing scientific research concentrated on the investigation of EPs source, presence, effects; and its treatment methods are not well established [6].
EPs are highly reactive and mobile due to which its elimination from aquatic settings is often an uphill task. It is pertinent to mention that minute quantities of EPs can pollute a significant bulk of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, EP-laden wastewaters can't be efficiently treated by already existing treatment operations which results in an augmented jeopardy due to their persistence in the environs [7, 8]. Consequently, the existence of EPs in wastewater management facilities is gradually developing into an unintended birthplace of severe contamination hazard to the waterways. Therefore, developing state-of-the-art procedures for management of waters tainted with EPs is an unrelenting and everlasting requisite. In this concern, a number of techniques have been explored and developed for eliminating and mitigating the deleterious effects of EPs on aquatic ecosystems through various physical, chemical and biological approaches. Certain methods are working well, however are costly, while other methods are equally capable and economical but detrimental to the environment. In this backdrop, water management techniques using biomass and related derivatives as a chief element are prospective of remediating the predicament of a number of EPs (Table 1.1). The biomass-based technologies are more efficacious, economical as well as eco-friendly as compared to existing treatment methods. This chapter delivers an overall gist of diverse pioneering biological methods for eliminating an array of EPs as well as outlining forthcoming exploration trends.
Table 1.1 Biosorption of varied biomasses to eliminate certain EPs from contaminated environments.
Emerging pollutant Biosorbent Reference Pharmaceuticals- Paracetamol
- Metronidazoles
Sugarcane bagasse
Siris seed pods
[9]
[10]
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
Nonylphenol
Rhizopus arrhizus [11] Radionuclides- Uranium VI
- Cesium
Wheat straw
Citrobacter freudii (bacteria)
Fusarium Sp. (fungi)
Basil seeds
Walnut shells
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Algal toxins- Microcystin-LR
1.2 Adsorption-Based Remediation
This water treatment method characterizes a vital part of EP remediation systems. Four major processes are discussed here, viz. sorption, adsorption, biosorption and bioadsorption. The terms adsorption and adsorbent refer to the sorbing substances that aren't biomass-based. This involves activated carbons and biopolymers (biomass derivatives), as well as silica, zeolites, clays and synthetic polymers. The terms biosorption and biosorbent (raw or pretreated) encompass the application of dead ("bioadsorption") and standing biomass ("passive" biosorption and/or "active" bioaccumulation).
1.2.1 Biomass
Several types of biosorbents "plants, algae, bacteria, fungi, yeasts" have been quantified in the sources over many years due to their potential for eliminating diverse toxic pollutants. Although EPs are discovered in diverse environments and pose a number of severe undesirable effects on our planet, they aren't presently counted in standard environmental assessment options. There exists a knowledge gap concerning the level of research conducted on the already existing pollutants and the newly emerging pollutants. A scientific supposition stating that conventional contaminants hold greater and confirmed toxicity threat in contrast to the EPs isn't correct at all times. In fact, during the last few years research investigations vis-à-vis EPs have increased exponentially [18].
1.2.2 Terrestrial and Marine Bioresources
Azoimide (hydrazoic acid) is an extremely toxic substance polluting hospital wastes [19]. In order to find a viable way out to deal with this toxic substance, its removal by powdered almond integument from contaminated waters was carried out. It was found that 1 g of almond biomass removed 45 mg of the azoimide toxin [20]. The release of hazardous wastes from nuclear power plants has been a serious cause of concern. To find a solution, investigators explored the adsorption efficacy of cactus fibers (Opuntia ficus) to get rid of uranium VI from discharged nuclear wastes and they were quite successful in it [21]. Similarly, the potential of Posidonia oceanica for removing surfactants from aqueous solutions was evaluated. The marine algae Padina pavonia was used as a biosorbent for the remediation of uranium (VI) from wastewaters. It was discovered that the marine biomass was effective in eliminating uranium with 98% effectiveness [22].
1.2.3 Agro-Industrial Wastes
In Turkey, the biosorption of Gallium III from polluted waters was accomplished via tea waste. It was discovered that this tea waste was effective in removing 77.4% of waste present in the solution [23]. Rice straw was utilized as a biosorbent to eliminate pharmaceuticals [24] which are often identified in wastewaters [25]. The findings confirmed that rice straw was able to remove the pharmaceuticals by means of adsorption. Similarly, a research group from Brazil was successful in removing Diclofenac from aqueous solutions via Isabel grape bagasse [26].
1.2.4 Activated Carbons (ACs)
1.2.5 Bioresources
Various biological precursors are used for manufacturing extremely absorbent activated carbons which can further be used for tackling EPs. An innovative AC was manufactured using Artemisia vulgaris for removing the widely used drug Ibuprofen from aqueous solutions. It was established that A. vulgaris-derived AC removed 17 mg/g of the drug [27]. ACs have also been produced from the leaves of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). The ACs formed from it were used for elimination of an antibiotic, ciprofloxacin, from contaminated waters [28].
1.2.6 Agro-Industrial Wastes
Chemically activated biochar formed from loblolly pine chips was used for the adsorption of several EPs from contaminated waters. The adsorption findings revealed an enhanced capacity for removing EPs [29]. In another investigation researchers examined the potential of ACs made from sesame stalk derived for removing Phenanthrene. The adsorbent displayed a remarkable efficacy to remove this EP [30].
1.2.7 Activated Sludge (AS)
Activated sludge is often useful in wastewater management plants. Huge quantities of AS are generated regularly, therefore...
