
Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics
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Content
- Front Cover
- Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics
- Copyright Page
- The Editors
- Alphabetical List of Articles
- Subject Classification
- Introduction
- Contributors
- A
- A Priori Knowledge: Linguistic Aspects
- Bibliography
- Action Sentences and Adverbs
- Action Sentences
- Adverbs
- Bibliography
- Analytic Philosophy
- Frege's Analysis of Number Statements
- Russell's Theory of Descriptions
- Moore's Conception of Analysis
- Wittgenstein's Tractatus
- Logical and Metaphysical Analysis
- Ordinary Language Philosophy
- Logical Positivism and the Quinean Tradition
- Analytic Philosophy Today
- Bibliography
- Analytic/Synthetic, Necessary/Contingent, and a Priori/a Posteriori: Distinction
- Necessary/Contingent Distinction
- The a Priori/a Posteriori Distinction
- Kripke on the Necessary a Posteriori and the Contingent a Priori
- The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction
- Metaphysical Analyticity
- Quine's Belief-Revisability Argument
- Frege-Analyticity
- Quine's Objections to Frege-Analyticity of the Second Kind
- Epistemological Analyticity
- Bibliography
- Anaphora: Philosophical Aspects
- Bibliography
- Architecture of Grammar
- The Competence-Performance Divide
- Grammars: Formal-Language Theory vs. Psychology
- The Formal-Language Pattern
- The Language Faculty as a Subpart of Central Cognitive Systems
- Combining Formal Language and Psychological Traditions
- Issues of Grammar Design
- The Status of the Lexicon
- The Syntax-Semantics Debate and the Grammar-Parser Relation
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Aristotle and Linguistics
- Bibliography
- Assertion
- Bibliography
- B
- Behaviorism: Varieties
- Psychological Behaviorism
- Rejection of Introspection as an Experimental Method
- Shunning of Internal Events
- Emphasis on Learning
- Philosophical Behaviorism
- Reductive Philosophical Behaviorism
- Nonreductive Philosophical Behaviorism
- Eliminative Philosophical Behaviorism
- The Return of Psychological Behaviorism?
- Bibliography
- Further Reading
- Boole and Algebraic Semantics
- Bibliography
- C
- Causal Theories of Reference and Meaning
- Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories
- The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference
- The Causal Theory of Meaning
- Problems and Prospects
- Bibliography
- Character versus Content
- Content/Character Distinction and Semantics
- Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy
- Bibliography
- Cognitive Science and Philosophy of Language
- The Ideal Language Tradition
- Example: Proper Names
- Russell's Theory of Descriptions
- Limitations of the Ideal Language Approach
- The Ordinary Language Tradition
- Example: Ryle on Free Will
- Limitations of the Ordinary Language Approach
- The Cognitivist Tradition
- Computational and Representational Theories of Mind
- The Rejection of Linguistic Behaviorism
- The Open Evidence Base
- Meanings as Mental States
- The Limitations of Cognitive Science
- The New Philosophy of Language
- Two More Theories of Proper Names
- Empirical Evidence
- Final Words
- Bibliography
- Communication: Semiotic Approaches
- The Rise of a Controversy
- Saussurean 'Signification' as Keyword and Sign of Contradiction
- The Functionalist Reading
- Some Code-model Approaches
- Charles Sanders Peirce
- Conclusive Remarks
- Bibliography
- Communication, Understanding, and Interpretation: Philosophical Aspects
- The Nature of Communication
- Interpretation and Understanding
- Bibliography
- Comparatives: Semantics
- Introduction
- Gradability
- Comparison
- Comparison Cross-Linguistically
- Bibliography
- Compositionality: Philosophical Aspects
- Considerations Against Semantic Compositionality
- Formal Considerations
- History
- Bibliography
- Compositionality: Semantic Aspects
- Bibliography
- Concepts
- The Classical Theory
- Probabilistic Theories
- The Theory-Theory
- Conceptual Atomism
- Bibliography
- Conditionals
- Form and Meaning
- Truth-Conditional Semantics
- Material Conditional
- (Variably) Strict Implication
- Relative Likelihood
- Probability
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Context and Common Ground
- History
- Bases for Common Ground
- Communal Common Ground
- Personal Common Ground
- Language and Communal Common Ground
- Discourse and Personal Common Ground
- Bibilography
- Context Principle
- Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle
- Motivating the Context Principle
- A Possible Objection to the Context Principle
- Bibliography
- Contextualism in Epistemology
- Bibliography
- Conventions in Language
- Convention and Analyticity
- Grice
- Lewis
- Lewis's General Notion of Convention
- Conventions of Language
- A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis
- Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention
- Convention versus Inference
- Bibliography
- Cooperative Principle
- The Principle Itself
- What Counts as Cooperation?
- The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse
- Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature
- Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle
- Problems with the Term 'Cooperation'
- Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims
- Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle
- Grammar
- Neo-Gricean Pragmatics
- Politeness Theory
- Question Processing
- Gender Studies
- Teacher Research and Pedagogy
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Coreference: Identity and Similarity
- Defining Coreference
- Identity
- Similarity
- Bound-Variable Anaphora
- E-Type Anaphora
- Anaphora of Laziness
- Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora
- Bibliography
- Counterfactuals
- Metalinguistic Approaches
- Possible Worlds Approach
- Some Issues
- Bibliography
- Creativity in Language
- Coining Words
- Children Coin Words, Too
- Language Revival
- Syntactic Units and Combinations
- Extending Language in New Directions
- Bibliography
- D
- Data and Evidence
- Sources of Data
- Corpora
- Grammaticality Judgments
- Fieldwork
- Experiments
- Kinds of Data
- Language Acquisition and Creolization
- Second Language
- Bilingualism
- Language Disorders
- Performance Errors
- Typology and Historical Change
- General Remarks
- Variability
- Data, Evidence, and Theory
- Bibliography
- De Dicto versus De Re
- Bibliography
- Default Semantics
- Bibliography
- Definite and Indefinite
- What Does 'Definite' Mean?
- Uniqueness?
- Familiarity?
- Some Puzzling Cases
- Grammatical Phenomena
- Existential Sentences
- The Have Construction
- Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs
- Other Kinds of Definite NPs
- Bare NPs
- Other Types of Indefinite NPs
- Other Kinds of Categorizations
- Old and New
- The Givenness Hierarchy
- The Accessibility Hierarchy
- Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages
- Bibliography
- Definitions: Uses and Varieties of
- Uses
- Varieties
- Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition
- Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions
- Uses Again
- Bibliography
- Deflationism
- Bibliography
- Deixis and Anaphora: Pragmatic Approaches
- Bibliography
- Description and Prescription
- Bibliography
- Relevant Website
- Descriptions, Definite and Indefinite: Philosophical Aspects
- Russell's Theories of Description
- Russell's Early Theory of Denoting
- Russell's Mature Theory
- Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica
- Descriptions and Scope
- Responses to Russell's Theory of Definite Descriptions
- Strawson's Critique of Russell
- The Ambiguity Thesis
- Responses to Russell's Theory of Indefinite Descriptions
- Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions
- An Alternative Nonreferential Account
- Bibliography
- Direct Reference
- What Is Direct Reference?
- Some Closely Related Concepts
- Problems with Direct Reference
- Bibliography
- Discourse Representation Theory
- The Problem of Unbound Anaphora
- Basic Ideas
- Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs)
- Extensions: Tense and Plurals
- Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers
- Discourse Structures and Partial Models
- Reasoning with DRSs
- Definition 1 (DRT)
- Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT)
- Definition 3 (DRT Consequence)
- Theorem 4
- Proof
- Theorem 5
- The Treatment of Ambiguities
- Bibliography
- Donkey Sentences
- Bibliography
- Dthat
- Bibliography
- Dynamic Semantics
- Information and Information Change
- Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics
- Dynamic Predicate Logic
- Update Semantics
- Presuppositions
- Further Reading
- Bibliography
- E
- E-Language versus I-Language
- E-Language/I-Language Distinction
- Some Preliminary Characterizations
- Getting at What's Fundamental
- Individualism and Antiindividualism
- Semantic Intuitions in Linguistics and General Epistemology
- Bibliography
- Empiricism
- Species of Empiricism
- Empiricism and Language
- Bibliography
- Empty Names
- The Problem of Negative Existentials
- Millianism
- Fregeanism
- More Millianism: The Gappy Proposition View
- Still More Millianism: The Communicated Proposition View
- Bibliography
- Epistemology and Language
- Bibliography
- Essential Indexical
- Bibliography
- Event-Based Semantics
- Bibliography
- Evolution of Semantics
- Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge
- The Importance of Motor Evolution
- The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills
- The Importance of Personality Types
- The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge
- Concept Formation
- The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis
- Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination
- Polysemy
- Abstract Concepts
- Cultural Evolution
- Bibliography
- Evolution of Syntax
- Language
- Evolution of Language
- Syntax
- Evolution of Syntax
- Is Syntax Adaptive?
- Exaptation
- Biological or Nonbiological Evolution
- The 'Big Picture' and Details of Syntax
- Effects of Particular Developments Within Theories of Syntax
- When Did Syntax Emerge?
- How Many Stages?
- A Series of Stages
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Existence
- What Existence Is
- The Hume-Kant View
- The Frege-Russell View
- The Meinong-Russell View
- Bibliography
- Expression Meaning versus Utterance/Speaker Meaning
- Bibliography
- Expressive Power of Language
- Bibliography
- Extensionality and Intensionality
- Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality
- Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings
- Bibliography
- Externalism about Content
- The Thesis of Externalism
- Arguments for and against Externalism
- Natural Kind Terms
- Indexicals
- Burge and Linguistic Practice
- Accounts of Content
- Externalism's Consequences
- Bibliography
- F
- Fictional Discourse: Philosophical Aspects
- The Nature of Fictional Discourse
- Truth in a Fiction
- Semantics of Fictional Discourse
- Responding to Fictions
- Bibliography
- Figurative Language: Semiotics
- Introduction
- Theories of Metaphor
- Selected Review of Theories of Metaphor
- Aristotle (384-322 b.c.)
- Giambattista Vico (1668-1744)
- I. A. Richards (1893-1979)
- Max Black (1909-1988)
- Groupe µ
- Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005)
- George Lakoff (b. 1941) and Mark Johnson (b. 1949)
- Conceptual Metaphor
- Metonymy
- Synecdoche
- The Image-Schema
- Ronald W. Langacker (b. 1942)
- Literal Versus Figurative Language
- Semiosis and the Signifying Order
- The Uses of Metaphor
- Theory-Constitutive Metaphors
- Linguistics
- Physics
- Anatomy
- Second Language Pedagogy
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Formal Semantics
- Introduction
- Semantics vs. Lexicography
- The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems
- Truth and Semantic Competence
- Semantic Modeling
- The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Formalism/Formalist Linguistics
- General Characterization
- The Research Program of Chomskyan Linguistics
- Other Mentalist Approaches
- Purely Formalist Approaches
- Aspects of Language Use
- References
- Frame Problem
- Origins of the Problem
- Frame Axioms Result in Computational Overload
- The Sleeping Dog Strategy and Nonmonotonic Logics
- The Yale Shooting Problem
- Holism Presents a Problem for the Sleeping Dog Strategy
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Functionalist Theories of Language
- Functionalism within the Gamut of Linguistic Theories
- The Basic Tenets of Functionalism
- Further Features
- Inclusive Rather Than Core Grammars
- The Use of Authentic Textual Data
- Flexibility of Meaning and Structure
- A Discourse Grammar, Not Just a Sentence Grammar
- Typological Orientation
- A Constructivist Account of Acquisition
- Important Functional Theories
- Functional Grammar
- Role and Reference Grammar
- Systemic Functional Grammar
- West Coast Functionalism
- Usage-Based Functionalist-Cognitive Models
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Future Tense and Future Time Reference
- Bibliography
- G
- Game-Theoretical Semantics
- Bibliography
- Generative Grammar
- Bibliography
- Generative Semantics
- Foreword (by Randy Harris)
- Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley)
- GS Positions on Controversial Issues
- GS Policies on the Conduct of Research
- Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach
- The History of GS
- Bibliography
- Generic Reference
- Forms of Generic Reference
- Theory of Generic Reference
- Bibliography
- Grammatical Meaning
- Bibliography
- H
- Holism, Semantic and Epistemic
- Epistemic Holism
- Semantic Holism
- The Argument from Compositionality and the Context Principle
- Problems with Semantic Holism
- Learning Problem
- Instability Problem
- Disagreement Problem
- Semantic Holism and the Philosophy of Mind
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- I
- Ideational Theories of Meaning
- Bibliography
- Identity and Sameness: Philosophical Aspects
- Introduction
- The Logic of Identity
- Relative and Absolute Identity
- Criteria of Identity
- Identity over Time
- Contingent Identity
- Vague Identity
- Bibliography
- Immunity to Error through Misidentification
- IEM
- IEM 'I'-Utterances
- Bibliography
- Implicature
- The Basic Notions
- Beyond Grice
- Presumptive Meanings: Levinson's Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature
- Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn's Q- and R-Principles
- Relevance Theory: Carston's Underdeterminacy Thesis
- Quality Reconsidered
- Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Indeterminacy, Semantic
- The Argument from Below
- Reactions to the Argument from Below
- The Argument from Above
- Reactions to the Argument from Above
- Bibliography
- Indexicality: Philosophical Aspects
- Bibliography
- Innate Ideas
- What Is Innateness?
- Which Concepts are Innate?
- Bibliography
- Innate Knowledge
- Bibliography
- Intention and Semantics
- Bibliography
- Interpreted Logical Forms
- Propositional Attitude Reports
- What Are ILFs?
- Puzzles and Problems
- The Simple Name Puzzle
- The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle
- The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle
- The Hard Name Puzzle
- Prospects
- Bibliography
- Irony
- Bibliography
- L
- Language as an Object of Study
- Language as a Social Fact
- Language as Behavior
- Language as a Mental Organ
- Language as an Abstract Object
- Bibliography
- Lexical Conceptual Structure
- Introduction
- Overview of Conceptual Semantics
- Autonomy of Semantics
- Lexical Conceptual Structure
- Ontological Categories
- Conceptual Formation Rules
- X-bar Semantics
- General Constraints on Semantic Theories
- Comparison with Other Works
- Suggested Readings
- Bibliography
- Lexical Semantics: Overview
- Word Knowledge
- Historical Overview
- Ambiguity and Polysemy
- Lexical Relations
- The Semantics of a Lexical Entry
- Lexical Semantic Classifications
- Argument Structure
- Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition
- Qualia Structure
- Bibliography
- Limits of Language
- Bibliography
- Linguistic Reality
- Why Those Objects?
- What Are They?
- Types and Tokens
- What Are Word Types?
- Realism
- Conceptualism
- Nominalism
- Bibliography
- Linguistics as a Science
- What Is a Science?
- The Scientific Study of Language
- Bibliography
- Linguistics: Approaches
- Introduction
- The Status of Linguistic Form
- Rationalist and Empiricist Approaches and the Status of Data
- The Production of Form
- The 'Landscape' of Language and its Division into Fields of Linguistic Inquiry
- Bibliography
- Linguistics: Discipline of
- Introduction
- The Meaning of 'Language'
- Knowledge of Language
- Describing Knowledge of Language
- Explanation in Language
- Linguistics as a 'Science'
- Beyond Language: Pragmatics and the Language of Thought
- Bibliography
- Logic and Language: Philosophical Aspects
- Introduction
- The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole
- Logic and Language in Frege
- Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism
- Wittgenstein on Logic and Language
- Carnap and the Vienna Circle
- Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism
- Bibliography
- Logical Consequence
- Fundamentals
- The Formal Study of Logical Consequence
- General Philosophical Concerns
- Bibliography
- Logical Form in Linguistics
- Bibliography
- Lying, Honesty, and Promising
- Informational Theories
- Noninformational Theories
- Bibliography
- M
- Mass Nouns, Count Nouns, and Non-count Nouns: Philosophical Aspects
- Plural Count Nouns and Non-count Nouns
- The Concept 'Mass Noun' and Its Supposed Criterion
- An Illusory Criterion
- The Non-metaphysical Goods
- Bibliography
- Maxims and Flouting
- The Cooperative Principle
- The Maxims
- Quantity
- Quality
- Relation
- Manner
- What Is a Maxim?
- Flouting: Past, Present, and Future
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Meaning: Cognitive Dependency of Lexical Meaning
- Bibliography
- Meaning: Development
- Conventionality and Contrast
- In Conversation
- Making Inferences
- Pragmatics and Meaning
- Another Approach
- Sources of Meanings
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Meaning: Overview of Philosophical Theories
- The Direct Reference Theory
- Meaning as Truth Conditions
- Sense and Reference
- The Idea Theory
- Meaning as Use
- Quine's Skepticism
- Bibliography
- Meaning: Procedural and Conceptual
- Relevance Theoretic Semantics
- Why Languages Develop Procedural Encoding
- The Conceptual-Procedural Distinction and Conventional Implicature
- Procedural Analyses of Discourse Markers
- Future Directions
- Bibliography
- Mentalese
- The Basic Hypothesis
- What Is Mentalese Like?
- The Thinker's Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code?
- Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics
- Further Arguments for LOT
- Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT
- LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought
- Bibliography
- Metalanguage versus Object Language
- Bibliography
- Metaphor: Philosophical Theories
- Metaphor and Philosophy
- Defining Metaphor
- Delineating Metaphor
- The Metaphorical and the Literal
- Deviance and Value
- Deviance: Semantic or Pragmatic?
- Theories of Metaphor
- Conditions of Adequacy
- Aristotle
- Interaction Theories of Metaphor
- Davidson and Metaphorical Meaning
- Bibliography
- Metaphor: Psychological Aspects
- The Ubiquity of Metaphor in Language
- Metaphor Understanding: The Standard View
- Psychological Tests of the Standard View
- Psychological Models of Metaphor Understanding
- Metaphor in Thought
- Psychological Studies on Conceptual Metaphor
- Bibliography
- Metaphysics, Substitution Salva Veritate and the Slingshot Argument
- Metaphysics and Language: Facts, Propositions and 'MCT Operators'
- Substitution Salva Veritate
- The Argument: The Slingshot Itself
- Aiming the Slingshot at Facts, and Factlike Things
- Responses to the Slingshot Argument
- Bibliography
- Modal Logic
- Bibliography
- Modern Linguistics: 1800 to the Present Day
- Introduction
- Comparative Philology
- The Neogrammarians
- Saussurean Structuralism
- Linguistic Geography
- Linguistic Anthropology
- Linguistic Relativity
- Behaviorism
- Distributionalism
- Generativism
- Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics
- Speech-Act Theory
- Language Origins and Nonhuman Language
- Retrospect
- Bibliography
- Modularity
- Bibliography
- Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers
- Bibliography
- Montague Semantics
- Historical Background
- Aims
- The Compositional Approach
- Interpretation in a Model
- Extension and Intension
- A Small Fragment
- Some PTQ Phenomena
- Developments
- Further Reading
- Bibliography
- Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force
- Bibliography
- N
- Natural Kind Terms
- What Are Natural Kind Terms?
- The Semantics of Natural Kind Terms: Descriptivism
- Against Descriptivism
- Causal Theories
- Descriptivism Redux
- Hybrid Views
- Bibliography
- Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning
- Grice's Distinction
- Grice's Theory of Non-natural Meaning
- Other Remarks
- Bibliography
- Naturalism
- Bibliography
- Negation: Philosophical Aspects
- Possible Properties of Negation
- Negations, Consistency, and Paradoxes
- More Than One Negation?
- Negation and Denial
- Bibliography
- Negation: Semantic Aspects
- Classical and Nonclassical Negation
- Negation and Polarity
- Negation Versus Denial
- Metalinguistic Negation
- Bibliography
- Nominalism
- Extreme Realism: Plato's Ideal Exemplars
- Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle's Universals
- The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians
- Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism
- The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism
- Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism
- Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism
- Bibliography
- Nonmonotonic Inference
- Bibliography
- Nonstandard Language Use
- Bibliography
- Normativity
- Prescriptive Versus Descriptive Linguistics
- Semantics and Normativity
- Pragmatics and Normativity
- Linguistic Properties of Normative Terms
- Bibliography
- O
- Object-Dependent Thoughts
- Singular Thoughts as Object Dependent
- Epistemological Consequences of Object-Dependence
- The Central Motivation for Object Dependence
- Criticisms and Rivals
- Bibliography
- Objectivity in Moral Discourse
- Ontological Objectivity
- Ontological Objectivity and Moral Discourse
- Grammatical and Semantic Markers
- Ontological Markers
- Epistemological Marker
- Moral Realism
- Denying Ontological Objectivity in Moral Discourse
- Methodological Objectivism
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Objects, Properties, and Functions
- Bibliography
- Ordinary Language Philosophy
- Language and Philosophy
- Ordinary Language Philosophy
- The Oxford Version: Austin
- Some Questions about Austin's Approach
- The Cambridge Version: Wittgenstein
- Some Questions About Wittgenstein's Approach
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Origin of Language Debate
- Preliminaries
- Discussions on the Origin of Language in Classical Antiquity
- Discussions on the Origin of Language in the Enlightenment
- The Origin of Language Topic in the 19th and 20th Centuries
- Bibliography
- P
- Paradoxes, Semantic
- The Paradoxes
- Suggested Solutions to the Liar
- Bibliography
- Philosophy of Linguistics
- Bibliography
- Philosophy of Science and Linguistics
- Bibliography
- Plato and His Predecessors
- Predecessors
- Plato
- Bibliography
- Plato's Cratylus and Its Legacy
- Bibliography
- Plurality
- Bibliography
- Polysemy and Homonymy
- Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes
- Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy
- Bibliography
- Possible Worlds: Philosophical Theories
- Bibliography
- Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said
- Bibliography
- Predication
- Bibliography
- Presupposition
- Introduction
- Operational Criteria
- The Logical Problem
- The Threat to Bivalence
- The Russell Tradition
- The Frege-Strawson Tradition
- The Trivalent Solution
- The Discourse Approach
- The Structural Source of Presuppositions
- Bibliography
- Principles and Parameters Framework of Generative Grammar
- Mechanisms for Phrase Structure Representations
- Constraints on Derivations and Representations
- Full Interpretation
- Locality of Movement
- Binding Theory
- Bound Anaphors
- Pronouns
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Private Language Argument
- The Argument's Target
- Supplementary Strands
- Rules and Communities
- Radical Evidence-Independence and the 'Theory Response'
- Bibliography
- Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects
- What Are Proper Names?
- Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference
- Theories of Meaning
- Millian Theories
- Description Theories
- Theories of Reference
- Description Theories
- Causal Theories
- Hybrid Theories
- Other Expressions
- Definite Descriptions
- Natural Kind Terms
- Bibliography
- Propositional Attitude Ascription: Philosophical Aspects
- Bibliography
- Propositions
- Roles Played by Propositions
- Propositions as Abstract Entities
- Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities
- Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean
- Ontology or Semantics?
- A Problem for the Structureless Approach
- Problems for the Structured Approaches
- Bibliography
- Q
- Quantifiers: Semantics
- Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations
- Some Non-Standard Quantifiers
- Bibliography
- R
- Radical Interpretation, Translation and Interpretationalism
- Radical Translation
- Radical Interpretation
- Interpretationalism
- Criticisms of Radical Interpretation and Interpretationalism
- Bibliography
- Realism and Antirealism
- Bibliography
- Reference: Philosophical Theories
- What Is Reference?
- Descriptivism
- Descriptivist Theories of Reference
- Frege's and Russell's Versions of Descriptivism
- Differences Between Descriptivist Views
- Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference
- Problems With Descriptivism
- The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference
- Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory
- Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Referential versus Attributive
- Donnellan's Contrast
- Donnellan's Use of the Contrast against Russell
- Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke)
- Semantic Treatments (Wettstein)
- Developments
- Bibliography
- Relevance Theory
- Basic Claims
- Code versus Inference
- A Post-Gricean Theory
- Two Principles of Relevance
- Assessing Relevance: Cognitive Effects versus Processing Effort
- Current Issues and Open Debates
- The Explicit/Implicit Distinction
- Conceptual and Procedural Encoding
- Ad hoc Concept Formation
- Mutual Knowledge versus Mutual Manifestness
- Communicated and Noncommunicated Acts
- Irony and the Notion of Echo
- Modularity
- Relevance Theory as Asocial
- Empirical Evidence
- Applications
- Concluding Remarks
- Bibliography
- Representation in Language and Mind
- The Relationship between Language and Thought
- Mental Representation as Basic
- Information-Based Theories
- Teleological Theories
- Conceptual Role Theories
- Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation
- Linguistic Representation as Basic
- Norms-Based Theories
- A Non-Reductive Proposal
- Bibliography
- Rigid Designation
- Introduction
- Names and Rigidity
- Types of Rigidity
- Bibliography
- Rules and Rule-Following
- Rule-Following and Meaning
- Constitutive and Epistemological Skepticism
- KW's Skeptical Argument
- KW's Skeptical Solution
- Significance of the Issue
- Responses to the Skeptical Paradox and Skeptical Solution
- Bibliography
- S
- Saussure: Theory of the Sign
- Bibliography
- Scope and Binding: Semantic Aspects
- Bibliography
- Semantic Value
- Bibliography
- Semantics of Interrogatives
- Metasemantics
- Semantics
- Bibliography
- Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary
- The Philosophical Debate
- The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary
- Bibliography
- Sense and Reference: Philosophical Aspects
- The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction
- More on Frege's Distinction
- Subsequent History, and Criticisms
- Bibliography
- Situation Semantics
- Guide to Literature
- Bibliography
- Social Construction and Language
- Nonanalytic Approaches
- Analytic Approaches
- Early Analytic Approaches and Social Construction
- John Searle's Approach
- Social Construction
- The Role of Language
- Critical Assessment
- Bibliography
- Speech Acts
- J. L. Austin
- The Performative/Constative Dichotomy
- Austin's Felicity Conditions on Performatives
- Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts
- J. R. Searle
- Searle's Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts
- Searle's Typology of Speech Acts
- Indirect Speech Acts
- Speech Acts and Culture
- Cross-Cultural Variation
- Interlanguage Variation
- Bibliography
- Syncategoremata
- The History of the Distinction
- Syntactic and Semantic Criteria of Drawing the Distinction
- Philosophical Significance of the Distinction
- Bibliography
- Syntax-Semantics Interface
- The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages
- Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect
- Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch
- The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis
- The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis
- The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis
- Shaking Things Up
- How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning?
- Where Does the Meaning Come From?
- Bibliography
- Systematicity
- Some Varieties of Systematicity
- Explaining Systematicity
- Bibliography
- T
- Tacit Knowledge
- The Early Debate
- Tacit Knowing vs. the Full Propositional Attitudes
- Tacit Knowing vs. Knowing How
- What Is Tacit Knowledge?
- Bibliography
- Temporal Logic
- Tense Logic
- Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic
- Semantics of Tense Logic
- Extensions of Tense Logic
- Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since' and 'Until'
- The Indeterminate Future
- Interval Semantics
- Other Forms of Temporal Logic
- Bibliography
- Tense and Time: Philosophical Aspects
- Bibliography
- Testimony
- Testimony as a Belief Source
- Testimony as a Knowledge Source
- Skepticism
- Perception and Understanding
- Reductionism and Anti-reductionism
- Summary
- Bibliography
- Thought and Language: Philosophical Aspects
- The Relative Priority of Thought and Language
- The Cartesian View
- Behaviorism
- Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought
- A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language
- Bibliography
- Transformational Grammar: Evolution
- Early Transformational Grammar
- Harris on Transformations
- Chomsky on Transformations
- Subtypes of Transformations
- Rule Ordering
- Transformations and Mental Processes
- The 'Standard Theory'
- Rule Interaction: the Transformational Cycle
- The Organization of the Grammar
- Generative Semantics
- The Extended Standard Theory
- The Lexicalist Hypothesis
- Interpretive Semantics
- Constraints on Movement Rules
- Structure Preservation
- Blind Application of Transformations
- Trace Theory
- Bibliography
- Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning
- Bibliography
- Truth: Primary Bearers
- Introduction
- The Case for the Sentence as the Primary Bearer of Truth-Value
- Context and the Question of Truth Bearers
- Ramifications of the Debate about Truth Bearers
- The Scope of the Issue
- Bibliography
- Truth: Theories of in Philosophy
- Traditional Theories
- Deflationary Theories
- Alternative Theories
- Bibliography
- 20th-Century Linguistics: Overview of Trends
- Introduction
- 20th-Century Linguistics vs. 19th-Century Linguistics: Continuities and Breakthroughs
- Ferdinand de Saussure
- Saussurean Trends in Europe
- Geneva School
- Prague School
- Copenhagen School
- Structural Linguistics in France: Benveniste, Martinet
- Other European Scholars (Guillaume, Tesniegravere, London School)
- American Linguistics from 1920s through 1960s
- Sapir and His Heritage
- Bloomfield
- Post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism
- Tagmemics and Stratificational Grammar
- The Beginnings of Typological Linguistics
- The Birth and Rise of Generative Grammar
- The Origins of Generative Grammar
- The Standard Theory
- Generative Phonology
- The Impact of Generative Grammar
- Trends Stemming from Generative Grammar
- Generative Semantics and Its Heritage
- 'One-Level' Approaches to Syntax
- From EST to the 'Minimalist Program'
- Trends Alternative to Generative Grammar
- Functionalist Schools
- Typological Linguistics
- Sociolinguistics
- Pragmatics
- Bibliography
- Two-Dimensional Semantics
- Applications
- Bibliography
- Type versus Token
- The Distinction
- Its Usefulness
- Universals
- A Related Distinction
- Do Types Exist?
- Bibliography
- U
- Use Theories of Meaning
- Bibliography
- Use versus Mention
- Bibliography
- V
- Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects
- Hallmarks of Vagueness
- Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness
- Philosophical Theories of Vagueness
- Bibliography
- Verificationism
- Introduction
- The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction
- Observation Statements
- Strong Verification
- Strong Verification and Strong Falsification
- Weak Verification
- The Influence of Verificationism
- Bibliography
- Subject Index
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