The Adaptive Brain I

Name: The Adaptive Brain I | Cognition, Learning, Reinforcement, and Rhythm
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Cognition, Learning, Reinforcement, and Rhythm

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Published on 1. January 1987

496 pages

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Front Cover
The Adaptive Brain I: Cognition, Learning, Reinforcement, and Rhythm
Copyright Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: A PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF REINFORCEMENT, DRIVE, MOTIVATION, AND ATTENTION 1
1. Introduction
2. Buffer the Learning Cells
3. A Digression on Classical Conditioning
4. Motor Synergies as Evolutionary Invariants
5. A Thought Experiment: The Synchronization Problem of Classical Conditioning
6. Some Experimental Connections
7. Conditioned Arousal
8. Secondary Reinforcers
9. Minimal Network Realization of Conditioned Nonspecific Arousal
10. Secondary Conditioning: A Principle of Equivalence for the Anatomy of CS and UCS
11. Are Drives Energizers or Sources of Information?
12. External Facts versus Internal Demands
13. Internal Facts versus External Demands: Existence of Homeostatic, or Drive, Inputs
14. Conditioned Reinforcers, Drives, Incentive Motivation, and Habits 21
15. Comparison with Hullian Concepts
16. Data on Conditioned Reinforcers and Drives
17. Data on Reinforcement
18. Data on Self-Stimulation
19. Reinforcement Without Drive Reduction
20. Go Mechanism, Amplifiers, Now Print
21. Data on Incentive Motivation
22. Secondary Reinforcement and Hull's Paradox
23. Late Nonspecific Potential Shifts
24. An Emergent Neocortical Analog
25. Motivational Set: Is Incentive Motivation Conditionable?
26. Distinct Cortical Recurrent Loops for STM and LTM
27. Motivation-Dependent Responses to Sensory Cues: Multiple Sensory Representations or Developmental Competition for Synaptic Sites?
28. Sensory-Drive Heterarchy: Competitive Decisions After Drives and Conditioned Reinforcers Interact
29. Differential Effects of Drive and Reinforcement on Learning Rate versus Performance Speed
30. Drives and Reinforcers: Multiplicative, Additive, or Neither?
31. Suppression by Punishment
32. Antagonistic Rebound and Learned Avoidance
33. Slowly Accumulating Transmitter Gates in Tonically Aroused Competing Channels Cause Antagonistic Rebound
34. Dipole Fields in Motivational Processing by the Hippocampal-Hypothalamic Axis
35. Some Pharmacological and Physiologiral Correlates 58 of Motivational Dipole Fields
36. Competition, Normalization, and STM Among 60 Sensory Representations
37. Attention and the Persistence Paradox of 62 Parallel Processing
38. Sensory Incentive versus Motor Incentive: The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map
39. Expectancy Matching and Attentional Reset: Unblocking and Dishabituation
40. Concluding Remarks
References
CHAPTER 2: SOME PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF A DEVELOPMENTAL, COGNITIVE, AND MOTIVATIONAL THEORY
PART I
1. Introduction: Self-Organizing Internal Representations
2. The Stability-Plasticity Dilemma in Adult Perception
3. Critical Period Termination and Cholinergic- Catecholaminergir Interactions
4. Hypothesis Testing and Error Correction in a Fluctuating Environment
5. Attention Shifts in Pavlovian Experiments
6. Transient Effects: Causality, STM Reset, and P300
7. A Thought Experiment About Self-organization of SP Codes
8. The Problem of Stimulus Equivalence
9. Categorical Perception, Bayesian Statistics, and Temporally I'nstable Feedforward Coding
10. Unconscious Inferences: Why Do Learned Feedback Expectancies Exist?
11. Processing Negativity and Match Detection
12. Novel Events Trigger Nonspecific Arousal
13. Mismatch Negativity (N200)
14. The Noise-Saturation Dilemma: Noise Suppression and Pattern Matching in Shunting On-Center Off-Surround Networks
15. Disinhibition of Mismatch Negativity by Unexpected Events
16. Attentional versus Orienting Subsystems: Error Perseveration, P300, and the Hippocampus
17. Parallel Hypothesis Testing in Real Time: STM Reset and Renormalization
18. Contrast Enhancement and STM Normalization in Competitive Feedback Networks
19. Limited Capacity STM System: Automatic versus Controlled Processing
20. Sigmoid Signal Functions and Noise Suppression
21. P300 and STM Reset: Updating of the Schema
22. Gated Dipoles: Antagonistic Rebound Due to Slow Transmitter Gating in Competing Channels
23. Tolerance Implies Withdrawal: Rebound Insomnia and a Way Out
24. A Nonspecific Arousal Burst Triggers an Antagonistic Rebound: Mismatch Triggers a P300
25. An Arousal Test of the Gating Transmitter
26. P300, Catecholamine Rebound, CNV Rebound, Critical Period Termination
27. A P300 Test of the Critical Period Buffer Mechanism
28. Adaptive Resonance: A Solution to the Stability-Plasticity Dilemma
PART II
29. The Dipole Field
30. Drives, Conditioned Reinforcers, Incentive Motivation, and CNV
31. Extinction, Conditioned Emotional Responses, Conditioned Avoidance Responses, and Secondary Conditioning
32. Cholinergic-Catecholaminergic Interactions in Drinking versus the Brain as a Chemical Bath
33. Intragastric versus Normal Drinking
34. Schedule-Induced Polydipsia, Frustration, and Expectancy Matching
35. Self-Stimulation and Kindling
36. Critical Period Reversal, P300 Suppression, and a Test of LTM Encoding by Cholinergic Pathways
37. Gestalt Switching Due to Ambiguous Figures and Habituation Induced Shifts of Categorical Boundaries
38. Motivational Switching and Hysteresis Without a Mythical Cusp Catastrophe
39. Formal Symptoms of Underaroused Depression
40. Formal Symptoms of Overaroused Depression
41. The Inverted U is Not a Unitary Concept
42. Inverted U in P300 and CNV
43. Parkinson Bracing, Starting, and Stopping
44. Juvenile Hyperactivity
45. Schizophrenic Overarousal
46. Analgesia: Endorphins versus Loud Noise
47. The Hyperphagic Syndrome and the Mythical Set-Point
48. Hypothalamic Stimulation and Rebound Eating
49. A Normal versus Hyperphagic Feeding Cycle
50. Some Other Drug-Induced Inverted U's and Hypothalamic-Hippocampal Interactions
51. Adaptive Resonance Between Dipole Fields
52. A Motivational Dipole Field: Drive-Reinforcer Matching and Motivational Competition
53. Theta, CNV, and Motor Potential Correlates of a Hippocampal Model
54. A Sensory Dipole Field: The Synchronization Problem and DC Potential Shifts
55. Secondary Conditioning
56. Valenstein Effect: Nonspecific Drive Representations or Nonspecific Conditioned Reinforcers and Conditioned Incentives?
57. Discrimination and Overshadowing Due to Conditioned Incentive Motivational Feedback: CNV Correlates
58. The Problem of Perseverating Prepotent Cues
59. Cortical Reset Triggers Hippocampal Reset: Two Distinct P300's
60. P300 Size Predicts Nothing About What Is Encoded in LTM
61. The Mackintosh, Bygrave, and Picton Experiment: A P300 Prediction
62. Concluding Remarks
APPENDIX: GATED DIPOLES
63. Transmitters as Gates
64. Intracellular Adaptation and Habituation
65. A Gated Dipole
66. Rebound Due to Phasic Cue Offset
67. Rebound Due to Arousal Onset
68. Inverted U in Dipole Output
69. Hypersensitive Underaroused Reaction to Phasic Increments
70. Paradoxical On-Reaction to Unexpected Events and Differential Enhancement of Overshadowed Cues
71. Paradoxical Lack of Rebound to Phasic Decrement: Ordering of Reinforcement Magnitude
72. Inhibiting Excitatory Resistance versus Exciting Inhibitory Conductance in Disinhibitory Incentive Motivational Pathways
73. Intracellular Dipoles
74. Presynaptic Normalization by Transmitter Diffusion and Feedback Inhibition
75. Paradoxical Inhibitory Action of Excitatory Transmitter on Tonically Aroused Cells References
References
CHAPTER 3: PROCESSING OF EXPECTED AND UNEXPECTED EVENTS DURING CONDITIONING AND ATTENTION: A PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY
PART I: INTERNAL PROBLEMS OF SOME CONDITIONING MODELS
1. Merging Parallel Streams of Theory on Conditioning and Attention
2. The Processing of Expected and Unexpected Events in Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory
3. Some Internal Paradoxes
4 . The Need for Behaviorally Unobservable Mechanisms
5. Causality Violation on the Behaviorally Observable Level
6. Some Unpredicted Data
7 . Formal versus Physical Concepts: A Second Type of LTM?
8. Overexpectation, STM Signaling, LTM Gating, and Drive Representations
9. Secondary Conditioning Implies That Cue and Drive Representations Are Distinct
PART II: SOME GENERAL PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
10. An Alternative Processing Framework: Complementary Attentional and Orienting Subsystems
11. The Stability-Plasticity Dilemma and Evoked Potential Correlates
12. Gated Dipoles
13. Antagonistic Rebound to Cue Offset
14. Antagonistic Rebound to Arousal Onset
15. What Is An Expectation?
16. Unexpected Events Trigger a MismatchModulated Arousal Burst
17. STM Reset versus STM Resonance
18. Chunking and Expectancy Learning
19. The Code of Adaptive Resonances
20. The Noise-Saturation Dilemma
21. STM Contrast Enhancement and Normalization: Hypothesis Testing and Overshadowing in a Limited-Capacity System
22. Overshadowing and Sigmoid Signal Functions
23. Noise Suppression and Selective Enhancement, or Dishabituation, of Overshadowed Representations by Unexpected Events
24. Noise Suppression and Pattern Matching
25. Sigmoid Signals and Tuning: Multiple Effects of a US
PART III: CONDITIONING AND ATTENTION
26. Gated Feedback Dipoles
27. Drives, Conditioned Reinforcers, Incentive Motivation, and CNV
28. Extinction, Conditioned Emotional Responses, Conditioned Avoidance Responses, and Secondary Conditioning
29. Motivational Baseline, Switching, and Hysteresis
30. Adaptive Resonance Between Dipole Fields
31. A Motivational Dipole Field: Drive-Reinforcer Matching and Motivational Competition
32. A Sensory Dipole Field: The Synchronization Problem and DC Potential Shifts
33. The Multidimensional Nature of Secondary Conditioning
34. Unblocking, Context, and Habituation
35. Double Shock Experiments: Initial STM Advantage of Surprising Events
36. Conditioned Reinforcer Learning
37. Incentive Motivation Feedback Influences STM Competition
38. Salience Influences Overshadowing
39. Overshadowing on a Single Trial
40. The Tone Is More Unexpected After Two Shocks
41. Situational Cues
42. Release From Overshadowing by an Unexpected US
43. Modulation of US and Drive Input Effects by Expectancies, Conditioned Reinforcers, and Transmitter Habituation
44. Latent Inhibition
45. Interaction of STM Reset, STM Normalization, and LTM Gating in CER Experiments
46. Overshadowing During Key Pecking
47. The Problem of Perseverating Prepotent Cues
48. Two Distinct P300 Evoked Potentials in Cortex and Hippocampus
49. Nonmonotonic Relation Between P300 and CNV
50. Some Comparisons With the Formal Models
51. Schedule Interactions and Behavioral Contrast
References
CHAPTER 4: NEURAL DYNAMICS OF CATEGORY LEARNING AND RECOGNITION: ATTENTION, MEMORY CONSOLIDATION, AND AMNESIA
1. Introduction: Self-organization of Recognition Categories
2. Bottom-Up Adaptive Filtering and ContrastEnhancement in Short Term Memory
3. Top-Down Template Matching and Stabilization of Code Learning
4. Interactions Between Attentional and Orienting Subsystems: STM Reset and Search
5. Attentional Gain Control and Attentional Priming
6. Matching: The 2/3 Rule
7. Direct Access to Subsets and Supersets
8. Weber Law Rule and Associative Decay Rule for Long Term Memory
9. Fast Learning and Slow Learning: The Direct Access Rule
10. Stable Choices in Short Term Memory
11. Order of Search and the Subset Recoding Property
12. Example of Code Instability
13. Search of Subsets, Supersets, and Mixed Sets
14. The Nature of Categorical Invariance During Learning
15. Vigilance, Orienting, and Reset
16. Distinguishing Signal from Noise in Patterns of Variable Complexity: Weighing the Evidence
17. Vigilance Level Tunes Categorical Coarseness: Environmental Feedback
18. Universal Recognition Design Across Modalities
19. Interdisciplinary Relationships: Word Recognition, Evoked Potentials, and Medial Temporal Amnesia
Appendix: Network Equations
References
CHAPTER 5: ABSOLUTE STAILITY OF GLOBAL PATTERN FORMATION AND PARALLEL MEMORY STORAGE BY COMPETITIVE NEURAL NETWORKS 287
I. Introduction: Absolute Stability of Global Pattern Formation in Self-Organizing Networks
II. Some Sources of Sustained Oscillations
III. A Global Liapunov Function
IV. Application of the LaSalle Invariance Principle
V. Decomposition of Equilibria into Suprathreshold and Subthreshold Variables
VI. Almost All Suprathreshold Equilibrium Sets Are Countable
VII. All w-Limit Points Are Equilibria
VIII. Neural Networks with Finitely Many Suprathreshold Equilibrium Points
IX. Concluding Remarks
References
CHAPTER 6: A NEURAL THEORY OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: THE GATED PACEMAKER
1. Introduction
A. A Physiological Model of a Circadian Pacemaker
B. Multiple Oscillators from Similar Mechanisms
C. Metabolic Feedback and Slow Gain Control
D. Comparison with other Pacemaker Models
2. The Gated Pacemaker
3. Qualitative Basis of Oscillations
4. Parameter Estimation
5. A Typical Oscillation in the Dark
6. Phase Response Curves in Diurnal and Nocturnal Gated Pacemakers
7. Parametric Structure of Oscillations: Threshold-Linear Signal Function
8. Circadian Period and the Transmitter Decay Rate
9. Dependence of Solution Types on Signal Function: The Sigmoid Case
10. Parametric Structure of Oscillations: Sigmoid Signal Function
11. Mittens, Oyster Shells, Sequence Clusters, and Chaos
12. Singular Perturbation Analysis
13. Concluding Remarks: Interdisciplinary Applications
References
CHAPTER 7: A NEURAL THEORY OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: ASCHOFF'S RULE IN DIURNAL AND NOCTURNAL MAMMALS
1. Introduction: A Neural Model of the Circadian System in the Mammalian Suprachiasmatic Nuclei
2. Aschoff's Rule, The Circadian Rule, and Exceptions
3. Asymmetry of Fatigue and Light in Diurnal and Nocturnal Models
4. A Connection Between Fatigue Signal and Sleep-Dependent Process S
5. Testing Existence of Fatigue Signal
6. Gated Pacemaker Model
7. Signal Functions, Activity Thresholds, and Attenuation of Light Input During Sleep
8. Aschoff's Rule and its Exceptions: Numerical Studies
9. Circadian Rule: Numerical Studies
10. Light Attenuation and Self-Selected Light-Dark Cycles in Diurnal Mammals: A Prediction
11. Stability of T: Clock-like Properties of Gated Pacemaker
12. Analysis of Aschoff's Rule
13. Analysis of Joint Action of Fatigue and Light Attenuation on Circadian Period
14. Analysis of Pacemaker Without Fatigue
15. Comparison With Other Models
16. Switching Between Diurnal and Nocturnal Properties
References
CHAPTER 8: A NEURAL THEORY OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: SPLIT RHYTHMS, AFTER-EFFECTS, AND MOTIVATIONAL INTERACTIONS
1. Introdurtion: A Neural Model of the Circadian System in the Mammalian Suprachiasmatic Nuclei
2. Homeostatic and Nonhomeostatic Modulators of the Circadian Pacemaker
3. Long-Term After-Effects: Parametric and Nonparametric Experiments
4. Split Rhythms: Influences of Light, Hormones, and SCN Ablation
5. The Gated Pacemaker Model
6. Signal Functions, Activity Thresholds, and Attenuation of Light Input During Sleep
7. Long-Term After-Effects: Slow Gain Control and Associative Conditioning
8. Analysis of After-Effects
9. Alternative Slow Gain Control Processes
10. Split Rhythms and Inconsistent After-Effects on Period
11. Split Rhythms: Slow Gain Control Processes
12. Analysis of Split Rhythms: Depression of Gain-by LL -
13. Analvsis of Split Rhvthms: Interaction of Slow Gain, Pacemaker Gate, and Fatigue
14. Analysis of Split Rhythms: SCN Ablation Experiments
15. Fatigue as an Internal Zeitgeber
16. Analysis of Inconsistent After-Effects on Period
17. A Formal Connection Between After-Effects and Aschoff's Rule
18. Regulation of Motivated Behavior by Hierarchical Networks: The Homology Between Pacemaker Circuits and Motivational Circuits
19. Circadian Modulation of Sensitivity: Inverted U in Motivational Dipoles
20. The Underaroused and Overaroused Depressive Syndromes
21. Anticipatory Wheel Turning, Ultradian Feeding Cvcles, and After-Effects of a Single Pulse of Light
22. Intracellular Gated Dipoles: Photoreceptors and Pacemakers
23. Comparison With Other Models Appendix: Choice of Parameters
References
CHAPTER 9: ASSOCIATIVE AND COMPETITIVE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT: THE TEMPORAL UNFOLDING AND STABILITY OF STM AND LTM PATTERNS
1. Introduction: Brain, Behavior, and Babel
2. From List Learning to Neural Networks: The Self-organization of Individual Behavior
3. Unitized Nodes, Short Term Memory, and Automatic Activation
4. Backward Learning and Serial Bowing
5. The Inadequacy of Rehearsal as an Explanatory Concept
6. The Inadequacy of Programmatic Time
7. Network versus Computer Parsing: Distinct Error Gradients at Different List Positions
8. Graded STM and LTM Patterns: Multiplicative Sampling and Slow Decay by LTM Traces
9. Binary versus Continuous Associative Laws
10. Retrieval Probes and LTM Gating of STM Mediated Signals
11. Behavioral Choices and Competitive Feedback
12. Skewing of the Bow: Symmetry-Breaking Between the Future and the Past
13. Evolutionary Invariants of Associative Learning: Absolute Stability of Parallel Pattern Learning
14. Local Symmetry and Self-similarity in Pattern Learning and Developmental Invariance
15. The Unit of LTM is a Spatial Pattern: Global Constraints on Local Network Design
16. The Teleology of the Pattern Calculus: Retina, Command Cell, Reward, Attention, Motor Synergy, Sensory Expectancy, Cerebellum
17. The Primacy of Shunting Competitive Networks over Additive Networks
18. The Noise-Saturation Dilemma and Absolute Stability of Competitive Decision-Making
19. The Babel of Code Development Models
20. The Duality Between Code Development and Pattern Learning
21. Outstars and Instars
22. Adaptive Filtering of Spatial Pattern Sequences
23. Synaptic Conservation, Code Invariance, and Code Instability
24. Critical Period Termination, the StabilityPlasticity Dilemma, and Adaptive Resonance
25. Stable Coding of Pattern Sequences
References
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The Adaptive Brain I

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