Diagnosis and Control of Diseases of Fish and Shellfish
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List of Contributors xiii
Preface xv
1 Introduction 1 Brian Austin and Aweeda Newaj-Fyzul
Conclusion 3
References 3
2 Bacterial Diagnosis and Control in Fish and Shellfish 5 Mags Crumlish
Introduction 5
Bacterial Infections in Aquaculture 5
Bacterial Disease Diagnostics and Control of Infections 6
Modern Approaches in Bacterial Diagnostics 9
Control Strategies Against Bacterial Diseases 10
Emerging Bacterial Diseases 11
Climate Change and Aquatic Bacterial Disease 12
Polymicrobial and Concurrent Infections 13
Public Health and Aquaculture 13
Conclusion 14
References 14
3 Complexities of Diagnostics of Viruses Affecting Farmed Aquatic Species 19 Manfred Weidmann
References 29
4 Parasitic Diseases in Aquaculture: Their Biology, Diagnosis and Control 37 Giuseppe Paladini, Matt Longshaw, Andrea Gustinelli, and Andrew P. Shinn
Introduction 37
Protista 38
Biology and Taxonomy 38
Life-Cycle 38
Public Health 38
Significant Pathogens within the Group 40
Reviews 40
Identification 41
Diagnostic Methods 41
Myxozoa 42
Biology and Taxonomy 42
Life-Cycle 42
Public Health 43
Significant Pathogens within the Group 43
Reviews 43
Identification 43
Diagnostic Methods 43
Mesomycetozoea, Fungi and Fungal-Like Organisms 44
Biology and Taxonomy 44
Life-Cycle 44
Public Health 45
Significant Pathogens within the Group 45
Reviews 46
Identification 46
Diagnostic Methods 46
Monogenea 46
Biology and Taxonomy 46
Life-Cycle 48
Public Health 48
Significant Pathogens within the Group 49
Reviews 49
Identification 49
Diagnostic Methods 49
Digenea 50
Biology and Taxonomy 50
Life-Cycle 52
Public Health 52
Significant Pathogens within the Group 53
Reviews 54
Identification 54
Diagnostic Methods 54
Cestoda 55
Biology and Taxonomy 55
Life-Cycle 55
Public Health 56
Significant Pathogens within the Group 57
Reviews 57
Identification 57
Diagnostic Methods 57
Nematoda 58
Biology and Taxonomy 58
Life-Cycle 58
Public Health 59
Significant Pathogens within the Group 59
Reviews 60
Identification 60
Diagnostic Methods 60
Acanthocephala 60
Biology and Taxonomy 60
Life-Cycle 61
Public Health 62
Significant Pathogens within the Group 62
Reviews 62
Identification 62
Diagnostic Methods 63
Arthropoda 63
Biology and Taxonomy 63
Life-Cycles 63
Parasitic Copepods 63
Isopods 65
Branchiurans 65
Public Health 65
Significant Pathogens within the Group 66
Reviews 66
Taxonomy and Systematics 66
Identification 67
Diagnostic Methods 68
Treatment, Prophylaxis and Farm Management Practices 69
Chemical Approaches 69
Reviews 70
Parasiticide Mode of Action 71
Non-Chemical Approaches in Parasite Control 72
Biosecurity 72
Farm Infrastructure 72
Husbandry-Based Practices 73
Diet 74
Biological Interventions 74
Genetic Breeding Programmes 74
Physical Measures 75
Mechanical Measures 75
Conclusion 76
References 77
5 Modern Methods of Diagnosis 109 Ahran Kim, Thanh Luan Nguyen, and Do-Hyung Kim
Introduction 109
Diagnostic Methods for Aquatic Diseases 110
Conventional Methods 110
Histopathology 110
Parasitology 110
Bacteriology 111
Virology 111
Immunoserological Methods 112
Monoclonal and Polyclonal Antibodies 112
Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay 114
Immunofluorescence Test 114
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) 117
Lateral Flow Immunoassay 119
Molecular Methods 121
Hybridization Methods 121
Nucleic Acid Amplification Methods 123
Molecular Typing Methods 128
Future Diagnostic Methods 129
Nanotechnology-based Strategies for Rapid Detection of Fish Pathogens 129
MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry for Microbial Identification 130
High-throughput Sequencing Technologies 132
Whole-genome Sequencing of Bacterial Pathogens 132
Metagenomics Approaches for Pathogen Detection 134
Conclusion 135
References 137
6 Immunostimulant Diets and Oral Vaccination In Fish 147 Eva Vallejos-Vidal, Felipe Reyes-López, and Simon MacKenzie
Introduction 147
Commonly Measured Immunological Parameters 148
Plant, Herbal and Algal Extracts 150
Plant and Herb Extracts 151
Andrographis paniculata 151
Aloe barbadensis 151
Chinese Herbs 152
Azadirachta indica 152
Camellia sinensis 152
Cedrus deodara 153
Citrus sinensis 153
Coffea arabica 153
Echinacea 153
Eclipta alba 154
Mentha piperita 154
Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi, Queen of Plants) 154
Psidium guajava l 154
Rehmannia glutinosa 154
Rhizophora apiculata 155
Cotinus coggyria 155
Urtica dioica 155
Viscum album coloratum 155
Zingiber officinale 156
Algae and Fungi Extracts 156
Astaxanthin 156
Navicula 156
Porphyridium cruentum 157
Spirulina platensis 157
Ganoderma lucidum 158
Lentinula edodes 158
Diets Containing Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns 158
Beta-Glucan 158
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 161Chitin 162
Receptors Mediating Immunostimulation Via PAMPs 162
Oral Vaccination 164
Gut Immunity 165
Non-encapsulated Vaccines 166
Encapsulated Oral Vaccines 166
Future Perspectives 167
References 168
7 Prebiotics and Synbiotics 185 Seyed Hossein Hoseinifar, Yun-Zhang Sun, and Zhigzhang Zhou
The Interactions between Feed Additives and Diseases of Fish and Shellfish 185
Prebiotics and Synbiotics: Definition and History 185
Mode of Actions on Disease Resistance 186
Strengthening the Immune Response 186
Conclusion 187
References 187
8 Probiotics for Disease Control in Aquaculture 189 S.M. Sharifuzzaman and Brian Austin
Introduction 189
Definition of Probiotics 190
Source of Probiotics 191
Application Methods and Options 192
Delivery Method 192
Dosage, Frequency and Duration of Administration 193
Use of Single Strain or Combinations 194
Dead, Inactivated or Cell Component 194
Range of Probiotics and their Efficacy 195
Modes of Action 204
Example of Commercial-Scale Application 207
Safety and Regulatory Issues 208
Conclusion 208
References 209
9 Use of Medicinal Plants in Aquaculture 223 Mirian Reverter, Nathalie Tapissier-Bontemps, Pierre Sasal, and Denis Saulnier
Introduction 223
Medicinal Plants in Aquaculture 224
Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants in Aquaculture 224
Application of Medicinal Plants in Aquaculture 225
Analysis of Plants Used in Aquaculture 227
Plant Orders Most Frequently Used in Aquaculture 239
Lamiales 239
Fabales 241
Asterales 241
Malpighiales 242
Plant Species Most Widely Used in Aquaculture 242
Analysis of Plant Bioactivity 243
Analysis of Plant Parts Used in Aquaculture 244
Other Plants and Perspectives 244
Conclusion 245
References 246
10 Antibiotics and Disinfectants 263 Brian Austin
Introduction 263
Antibiotics 264
Chemotherapy Regimes 264
Bacterial Kidney Disease (BKD) 264
Chryseobacterium scophthalmum 267
Cold-Water Disease/Rainbow Trout Fry Syndrome (RTFS) 267
Cold-Water Vibriosis 267
Columnaris 267
Edwardsiellosis (Edwardsiella ictaluri) 267
Edwardsiellosis (E. tarda) 267
Enteric Redmouth (ERM) 267
Flavobacteriosis 268
Flavobacterium johnsoniae 268
Francisellosis 268
Furunculosis; Carp Erythrodermatitis; Goldfish Ulcer Disease 268
Gaffkemia 268
Lactococcosis and Streptococcosis 268
Motile Aeromonas Septicaemia (Aeromonas hydrophila) 269
Mycobacteriosis 269
Nocardiosis 269
Pasteurellosis 269
Plesiomonas shigelloides 269
Rickettsiosis 269
Sekiten byo; Red Spot 269
Sporocytophaga sp. 269
Staphylococcus aureus 269
Staphylococcus epidermidis 269
Tenacibaculum maritimum 269
Vibriosis (Vibrio anguillarum; V. ordalii) 270
Vibrio alginolyticus 270
Vibrio harveyi 270
Vibrio pelagius 270
Vibrio splendidus 270
Disinfectants 270
Disinfectant Regimes 271
Aeromonas Septicaemia; Fin/Tail Rot 271
Amoebic Gill Disease (AGD) and Sea Lice 271
Bacterial Gill Disease 271
Bacterial Kidney Disease 271
Botulism 271
Citrobacter freundii 271
Cold-Water Disease 271
Columnaris 271
Columnaris and Ichthyobodo necator - Concurrent Infections 272
Crayfish Plague 272
Flavobacterium johnsoniae 272
Gyrodactylus salaris 272
Infectious Haematopoietic Necrosis (IHN) 272
Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis (IPN) 272
Mycobacteriosis 272
Pseudomonas fluorescens 272
Sporocytophaga sp. 273
Conclusion 273
References 273
11 Management Techniques and Disease Control 279 Aweeda Newaj-Fyzul and Brian Austin
Introduction 279
Disinfection 279
Hygiene 280
Acquisition of New Stock 280
Stocking Levels 280
Water Flow and Aeration 280
Feed/Feeding Regimes 281
Vermin 281
References 281
12 Conclusions 283 Brian Austin and Aweeda Newaj-Fyzul
References 284
Index 289
Chapter 2
Bacterial Diagnosis and Control in Fish and Shellfish
Mags Crumlish
Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK
Introduction
Aquaculture is described as an 'organised production of the crop in the aquatic medium' (FAO, 1987) and while this might be considered a very generic description, it is actually quite accurate given the diversity in production and range of species farmed. These systems are often categorized as either intensive, semi-intensive or extensive which is more a reflection of the production levels in these types of systems as the boundaries between each category are not well defined. Aquaculture is practised in all parts of the world and farms may be located in coastal areas, open marine water and inland in earthen ponds or river-based cages. Given the ubiquitous presence of bacteria within the environment, disease outbreaks can occur in each of these production types and locations.
Global aquaculture production has continued to expand at approximately 9% per year since the 1970s, with Asia dominating the production levels, particularly in finfish (FAO, 2014). It is in Asia that we see the largest and most rapid expansion. The growth of Asian aquaculture has outstripped that of European and North American production, which remains high but with limited capacity for significant growth compared with Asian aquaculture (Bostock et al., 2010). This is primarily due to the increasing desire for intensification but also the availability of the more diverse species range suitable for farming in Asia. At present, it is estimated that more than 600 aquatic species are raised in freshwater, brackish and marine farms of varied intensity (FAO, 2014). These 600 species include both vertebrate and invertebrate animal species as well as plants, but for the purposes of this chapter, we will focus our attention on the most intensive farmed species that are traded globally for human food and include examples from finfish and crustaceans only. From this point onwards, the use of the term 'fish' includes finfish and shrimp unless otherwise stated.
Bacterial Infections in Aquaculture
Bacteria are described as single-celled organisms that have a rather simple cellular structure, lacking membrane-bound organelles. They are found ubiquitously in all habitats, including fresh and sea water, and display a range of cellular morphologies. Bacterial classification relies on identification of phenotypic and genotypic characteristics and the relatively simple Gram stain reaction remains the most reliable method allowing species to be separated into either Gram-positive or Gram-negative groups. It is the chemical and physical properties of the bacterial cell wall that allow the retention of the coloured dye used during the Gram stain reaction. In aquaculture, disease outbreaks occur from both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial species, which may be rod-like or spherical cocci in shape. It is not the purpose of this chapter to discuss in detail the varied bacterial species; the reader is referred to Austin and Austin (2016) for more in-depth detail on specific aquatic bacterial pathogens. A list of the commonly reported bacterial diseases that affect intensive monoculture systems is provided in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Bacterial pathogens commonly reported in intensive production systems
Disease Pathogen Comments Gram-negative bacteria Skin ulcers Aliivibrio logei Cold water vibriosis or Hitra disease Aliivibrio salmonicida Septicaemia ormotile Aeromonas septicaemia (MAS) Aeromonas hydrophila
Aeromonas sobria
Aeromonas caviae Taxonomically difficult to identify at times, usually a complex Furunculosis Aeromonas salmonicida Enteric septicaemia of catfish (ESC) and bacillary necrosis of pangasius (BNP) Edwardsiella ictaluri Edwardsiellosis Edwardsiella tarda Edwardsiellosis Edwardsiella piscicida Rainbow trout fry syndrome (RTFS) or cold water disease Flavobacterium psychrophilum Formerly
Cytophaga psychrophila Columnaris or saddleback Flavobacterium columnare Formerly
Flexibacter/Cytophaga columnaris Gill disease or gill rot Flavobacterium branchiophilum Francisellosis Francisella asiatica
Francisella noatunensis Warm-water species
Cold-water species Winter ulcer disease Moritella viscosa Septicaemia Pseudomonas fluorescens Red spot or winter disease Pseudomonas anguilliseptica Pasteurellosis Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida Formerly
Pasteurella piscicida Marine columnaris Tenacibaculum maritimum Formerly
Flexibacter maritimus Septicaemia Vibrio alginolyticus Vibriosis Vibrio anguillarum Also known as
Listonella anguillarum Vibriosis Vibrio ordalii Enteric red mouth disease (ERM) Yersinia ruckeri Gram-positive bacteria Streptococcosis Streptococcus agalactiae
Streptococcus iniae Formerly S. difficilis Lactococcosis Lactococcus garvieae Bacterial kidney disease (BKD) Renibacterium salmoninarum Mycobacteriosis
'fish tuberculosis' Mycobacterium spp.
The bacterial pathogens that have been identified and characterized the most are those that cause greater economic impact as determined through high mortalities or morbidity at the farm. At present, it is fair to say that we see more infections from Gram-negative than Gram-positive species (see Table 2.1). However, further intensification and introduction of novel host species combined with increasing consumer demand for non-local or exotic food types may change this in the future. Furthermore, bacterial identification and taxonomy is a rapidly developing area (Austin and Austin, 2016) as we move away from phenotypic-only tests and rely more on molecular tools for pathogen identification. This will not only result in taxonomic changes but with appropriate development, such methods may provide additional diagnostic tools leading to the production of novel control strategies applicable within aquaculture.
Bacterial Disease Diagnostics and Control of Infections
The principles behind aquatic bacterial diagnostics are similar to those practised in human clinical and terrestrial veterinary medicine. While the methods and approaches are similar, the type of samples and the diagnostic tests used will depend on the reason for the initial investigation. In aquaculture, diagnostic samples are provided to the laboratory to determine the health status of animals prior to transportation of live shipments or used to confirm that animals are specific pathogen free (SPF). However, like other farming sectors, the most common use of diagnostics in aquaculture is investigation of an unexpected mortality or morbidity within the farmed stocks from a suspected disease. Not all causes of mortality are infectious and so disease outbreaks can only be confirmed using a diagnostic approach. This means that to perform the diagnosis, we need to have a combination of information which includes the farm history and outbreak or event history, followed by a visual examination of the animals with and without clinical signs prior to taking samples for the laboratory tests.
Disease outbreaks are multifactorial, where the clinical outcome is dependent on the interaction between the host and the pathogen. To be more accurate, it is the interaction of the host immune response with the virulence factors produced by the pathogen that provides the range of clinical signs observed. Disease outbreaks in aquatic farms are often described as either acute or chronic, which is a reflection of the onset of the disease condition rather than an accurate description of the infection itself.
Reliance on observations of gross clinical signs of disease in aquaculture is limited, as the clinical presentation can vary tremendously and not all clinical signs have a microbial aetiology. Infections due to the Gram-negative bacterium Edwardsiella ictaluri in Asian catfish species Pangasianodon hypophthalmus provide few if any external clinical signs (Ferguson...
