Next-Generation Algae, Volume 2
Description
The book comprehensively details the novel and biologically active compounds derived from algae for sustainable healthcare delivery that could be used for the treatment of an ever-increasing population, prevention of high rate of morbidity rates, as well as in the treatment of numerous diseases, and serve as an alternative drug for the prevention of high level of resistance to synthetic drugs.
This second volume places a special emphasis on the discovery of novel and biologically active compounds from algae. It covers a wide range of applications, including the use of astaxanthin and carotenoids derived from algae for the production of nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, additives, food supplements, and feed. The book also discusses the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their biomedical applications, recent advancements in the research of sulfated polysaccharides from algal origin, and their antiulcer bioactivities. Other topics include the application of algae in wound healing, the use of nanotechnology for the bioengineering of useful metabolites derived from algae and their multifaceted applications, and the production of single-cell proteins and pigments with high relevance in the industry.
Audience
Researchers in industry and academia as well as clinicians in the fields of microbiology, biotechnology, and food science will find this book very pertinent.
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Persons
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, PhD, is an associate professor in the Microbiology Department, Edo University Iyamho, Nigeria. He has filed several scientific patents and has published over 180 scientific journal articles, books, and conference proceedings. He has received numerous awards from international organizations.
Julius Kola Oloke, PhD, is the Vice Chancellor of Precious Cornerstone University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Naveen Dwivedi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Biotechnology at the S. D. College of Engineering and Technology, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma, PhD, is a scientist at the Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development, Bioenergy and Bioprocessing laboratory Sikkim Centre, Sikkim, India.
Shubha Dwivedi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Biotechnology, IIMT University, Meerut, UP, India.
Daniel Hefft, PhD, is a chemical and food engineer and is the Product Research Team Lead at Campden BRI, UK. This role within the consulting technology department delivers meaningful contract R&D and process engineering solutions.
Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, PhD, is a faculty member in the Department of Biochemistry, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria. Her research interests are focused on the nutritional safety of foods and the evaluation of medicinal plants in the management and maintenance of human health.
Content
Preface xv
1 Discovery of Novel and Biologically Active Compounds from Algae 1
M. Singh, N. Gupta, P. Gupta, Doli, P. Mishra and A. Yadav
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Microalgae-Derived Natural Products 3
1.3 Bioprospecting for New Algae 4
1.4 Therapeutically Essential Natural Products 6
1.5 Screening for Bioactive Constituents 7
1.6 Extraction Methods 9
1.7 Biosynthesis and Biological Activities 11
1.7.1 Antibacterial Action 15
1.7.2 Antifungal Action 17
1.7.3 Anti-Inflammatory Action 18
1.7.4 Antiprotozoal Action 19
1.7.5 Antioxidant Action 20
1.7.6 Antineoplastic (Anticancer) Action 21
1.7.7 Antiviral Action 24
1.7.8 Anticoagulant Action 25
1.7.9 Immunosuppressive Action 25
1.8 Conclusion 26
References 27
2 Bioactive Compounds Synthesized by Algae: Current Development and Prospects as Biomedical Application in the Pharmaceutical Industry 41
Preeti Mishra, Namrata Gupta, Monika Singh and Deeksha Tiwari
2.1 Introduction 42
2.2 Algal-Sourced Compounds of Medical Interest 43
2.3 Microalgae with Potential for Obtaining Bioactive Compounds 44
2.3.1 Spirulina 46
2.3.2 Chlorella 47
2.3.3 Nostoc 49
2.3.4 Dunaliella 50
2.4 Bioactive Compounds from Cyanobacteria 51
2.5 Secondary Metabolites from Microalgae 55
2.5.1 Carotenoids 55
2.5.1.1 ß-Carotene 55
2.5.1.2 Astaxanthin 57
2.5.1.3 Zeaxanthin and Lutein 58
2.5.1.4 Violaxanthin 59
2.5.1.5 Fucoxanthin 59
2.5.2 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 60
2.5.3 Proteins and Polypeptides 61
2.6 Biomass of Microalgae 62
2.6.1 Biomass Production 62
2.6.1.1 Cultivation 62
2.6.1.2 Harvesting 63
2.6.1.3 Biomass Dehydration 64
2.6.1.4 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds 66
2.7 Pharmaceutical Applications of Microalgae 66
2.8 Conclusion 71
References 72
3 Bioactive Compounds Derived from Microalgae Showing Diverse Medicinal Activities 77
D. Tiwari, P. Mishra and N. Gupta
3.1 Introduction 78
3.2 Microalgae with Anti-Inflammatory Activity 81
3.3 Microalgae with Immunomodulatory Activity 82
3.4 Microalgae Anticancer Activity 85
3.5 Potential of Microalgae in Quality Enhancement of Natural Products 87
3.5.1 Pharmaceutical Industry 87
3.5.2 Cosmetics and Personal Care 87
3.5.3 Food Industry 88
References 90
4 Application of Astaxanthin and Carotenoids Derived from Algae for the Production of Nutraceuticals, Pharmaceuticals, Additives, Food Supplement and Feed 95
Abiola Folakemi Olaniran, Joshua Opeyemi Folorunsho, Bolanle Adenike Akinsanola, Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo, Yetunde Mary Iranloye, Clinton Emeka Okonkwo and Omorefosa Osarenkhoe Osemwegie
4.1 Carotenoids and Its Characteristics 96
4.1.1 Sources of Carotenoids 97
4.1.2 Production/Extraction of Carotenoids 99
4.2 Astaxanthin and Its Characteristics 102
4.2.1 Production/Extraction of Astaxanthin 103
4.2.2 Historical Perspective of Consumption of Alga as Food and Utilization in the Food Industry 104
4.3 Application/Utilization of Astaxanthin and Carotenoids in Different Sectors 105
4.3.1 Nutraceuticals 108
4.3.2 Food Additives, Supplements and Feed Formulation 110
4.3.3 Alga as a Potential Source of Astaxanthin and Food Supplement 111
4.3.4 Technological Application of Algae as Origins of Supplements and Bioactive Mixtures in Healthier Food Varieties and Drinks 112
4.3.5 Enriching Dairy Products with Algae 114
4.3.6 Algae as a Potential Healthy Protein and Fat Source 115
4.4 Future Perspective 117
References 118
5 Production of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) and Their Biomedical Application 125
Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan and Charles O. Adetunji
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 126
5.3 Production of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 127
5.4 Nanomedicine-Based Formulations Containing Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 128
5.5 Biological and Medical Application of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 129
5.6 Metabolism of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid 131
5.7 Challenges and Issues of Production and Use of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 132
5.8 Conclusion 133
References 133
6 Utilization of Algae and Their Anti-Proliferative and Anti-Inflammatory Activities 139
Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan and Charles O. Adetunji
6.1 Introduction 140
6.2 Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae 141
6.3 Algae Biocomposites 141
6.4 Techniques and Methods Involved in the Production of Algae Biocomposites 143
6.5 Antiproliferative Activities of Algae 144
6.6 Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Algae 144
6.7 Potential Health Benefits of Algae Biocomposites 146
6.8 Challenges and Issues Related to Algae Biocomposites Use 147
6.9 Conclusion 147
References 148
7 Natural Compounds of Algae Origin with Potential Anticarcinogenic Benefits 153
Adewale Omowumi Oyeronke, Asowata-Ayodele Abiola Mojisola, Akomolafe Seun Funmilola and Adetunji Juliana Bunmi
7.1 Introduction 154
7.2 Progression, Predisposing Factors and Treatment of Cancer 156
7.2.1 Cancer Progression 156
7.2.2 Predisposing Factors to Cancer 157
7.2.3 Treatment of Cancer 157
7.3 Features of Microalgae 157
7.4 Sources of Microalgae 158
7.5 Fractions of Microalgae Species with Anticancer Properties 158
7.5.1 Carotenoid-Rich Extracts of Chlorella Species 158
7.5.2 Chaetoceros Calcitrans Ethyl Acetate and Ethanol Extracts 159
7.5.3 Amphidinium Carterae Organic Fractions 159
7.5.4 Methanolic Extracts from Amphidinium Carterae, Prorocentrum Rhathymum, Symbiodinium sp.,
Coolia Malayensis, Ostreopsis Ovata, Amphidinium Operculatum, and Heterocapsa Psammophila 160
7.5.5 Skeletonema Marinoi Hydrophobic Fraction 160
7.5.6 Canadian Marine Microalgal Pool Aqueous Extract 160
7.5.7 Chlorella Sorokiniana Aqueous Extract 161
7.6 Compounds with Anticarcinogenic Activities Isolated from Marine Microalgae 161
7.6.1 Polysaccharides 161
7.6.2 Phycocyanin 163
7.6.3 Chlorophyll 163
7.6.4 Polyunsaturated Aldehydes (PUAs) 164
7.6.5 Violaxanthin 164
7.6.6 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) 165
7.6.7 Stigmasterol 166
7.6.8 Fucoxanthin 166
7.6.9 Nonyl 8-Acetoxy-6-Methyloctanoate (NAMO) 167
7.6.10 Monogalactosyl Glycerols 168
7.6.11 Other Active Compounds from Microalgae with Anticarcinogenic Activities 168
7.7 Conclusion and Recommendation 168
References 169
8 Current Research on Algal-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharides and Their Antiulcer Bioactivities 177
Abiola Mojisola Asowata-Ayodele, Adewale Omowumi Oyeronke, Akomolafe Seun Funmilola and Adetunji Juliana Bunmi
8.1 Introduction 178
8.1.1 Symptoms of Peptic Ulcer Disease 179
8.2 Treatment Using Synthetic Medicines 181
8.3 Natural Products Used in the Treatment of Peptic Ulcer 183
8.4 Antiulcer Products Developed from Algae 184
8.4.1 Phycocolloids 186
8.4.2 Fucoidan 188
8.4.3 Ulvans 189
8.4.4 Laminaran 190
8.4.5 Xylan and Porphyran 191
8.5 Conclusion 193
References 193
9 Pharmacological and Antioxidant Attributes of Significant Bioactives Constituents Derived from Algae 197
Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Abigail Omotayo Agbolade, Omowumi Oyeronke Adewale, Ikechukwu P. Ejidike, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Isreal Olu Oyewole
9.1 Introduction 198
9.1.1 Brown Algae 198
9.1.1.1 Fucoidan and Its Bioactivity 198
9.1.1.2 Benefits Derived from Fucoidan 200
9.1.1.3 Laminarin 202
9.1.1.4 Fucosterol 204
9.1.1.5 Saccharides 204
9.1.1.6 Phlorotannins 206
9.1.1.7 Dieckol 207
9.1.2 Red Algae 207
9.1.2.1 D-Isofloridoside 207
9.1.2.2 Phycoerythrin 208
9.1.3 Blue-Green Algae 209
9.1.3.1 Phycocyanin and Phycocyanobilin 209
9.1.4 Other Potential Applications of Algae 215
9.1.4.1 Antioxidant and Anti-Tyrosine Capabilities 215
9.2 Conclusion 216
References 216
10 Utilization of Pharmacologically Relevant Compounds Derived from Algae for Effective Management of Diverse Diseases 223
Olulope Olufemi Ajayi
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 Algae in the Management of Some Diseases 225
10.2.1 Cancer 225
10.2.2 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 226
10.2.3 Osteoarthritis 227
10.2.4 Gastric Ulcers 227
10.2.5 Neurodegenerative Diseases 227
10.2.6 Diabetes Mellitus 228
10.2.7 Hypertension 228
10.2.8 Atherosclerosis 229
10.2.9 Kidney and Liver Diseases 230
10.2.10 Skin Diseases/Disorders 230
10.2.11 Uterine Leiomyomas 231
10.2.12 Obesity 232
10.2.13 Tuberculosis 234
10.2.14 Asthma 235
10.2.15 Hepatitis 236
10.3 Xanthophylls 236
10.3.1 Astaxanthin 236
10.3.2 Fucoxanthin 237
10.3.3 Lutein and Zeaxanthin 237
10.3.4 Beta-Cryptoxanthin 237
10.3.5 Siphonaxanthin 238
10.3.6 Saproxanthin and Myxol 238
10.4 Alga Diterpenes 238
10.5 Conclusion 239
References 239
11 Application of Algae in Wound Healing 251
Ebenezer I. O. Ajayi, Johnson O. Oladele and Abraham O. Nkumah
11.1 Introduction 252
11.1.1 Current Trends in the Design of Wound Dressings 253
11.2 Brown Seaweed Polysaccharides 256
11.2.1 Fucoidan 257
11.2.2 Alginate 258
11.2.3 Carrageenan 259
11.2.4 Red Seaweed Polysaccharides 260
11.2.5 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides 260
11.3 Mechanisms Underpinning the Wound Healing Effects of Algae 261
11.3.1 Hemostatic Activity 263
11.3.2 Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory Effects 264
11.3.3 Antioxidant Activity 267
11.3.4 Antifungal Activity 269
11.3.5 Antibacterial Properties 269
11.3.6 Wound-Healing Property of Algae and Cyanobacteria 271
11.4 Conclusion 274
References 274
12 Application of Nanotechnology for the Bioengineering of Useful Metabolites Derived from Algae and Their Multifaceted Applications 285
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Inobeme Abel, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Nyejirime Young Wike, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Arshad Farid, Shakira Ghazanfar, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Muhammad Akram, Chibuzor Victory Chukwu and Mohammed Bello Yerima
12.1 Introduction 286
12.2 Various Types of Nanoparticles Derived from Algae 287
12.3 Nanoparticles from Algae and the Key Role They Play in the Medical and Pharmaceutical Sectors 295
12.3.1 Anticancer Activity 298
12.4 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles and Their Key Role in the Cosmetics Industry 302
12.4.1 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Moisturizer 302
12.4.2 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Skin Sensitizing and Thickening Agents 302
12.4.3 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Anti-Aging Agents 303
12.4.4 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Antioxidant Agent 303
12.5 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Antibacterial Agent 303
12.6 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Antifungal Agent 306
12.7 Algae-Derived Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agent 306
12.8 Conclusion 307
References 307
13 Discovery of Novel Compounds of Pharmaceutical Significance Derived from Algae 321
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Fahad Said Khan, Olugbemi T. Olaniyan, Babatunde Oluwafemi Adetuyi, Inobeme Abel, Ruth Ebunoluwa Bodunrinde, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Phebean Ononsen Ozolua, Nyejirime Young Wike, Wadzani Dauda Palnam, Arshad Farid, Shakira Ghazanfar, Olorunsola Adeyomoye, Chibuzor Victory Chukwu and Mohammed Bello Yerima
13.1 Introduction 322
13.2 Bioactive Compounds 323
13.3 Pharmacological Significance of Algae 324
13.3.1 Antioxidative Activity 324
13.3.2 Antihypertensive Activity 325
13.3.3 Anticoagulant Activity 326
13.3.4 Antiproliferation Activities 326
13.3.5 Immune-Stimulant Activity 327
13.3.6 Cholesterol-Lowering Activity 328
13.3.7 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 329
13.3.8 Anticancer Activity 329
13.3.9 Cancer Prevention Agent 330
13.3.10 Antidiabetic 330
13.3.11 Different Biomedical Activities 331
13.4 Research Results on Well-Studied Algal Strains 332
13.5 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 334
References 334
14 Applications of Algae in the Production of Single-Cell Proteins and Pigments with High Relevance in Industry 343
Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Omowumi Oyeronke Adewale, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Isreal Olu Oyewole
14.1 Introduction 344
14.2 Microalgae-Derived Single Cell Protein (SCP) 345
14.2.1 Dunaliella 346
14.3 Applications of SCP in Diets 347
14.4 Pigments Derived from Algae 348
14.4.1 Astaxanthin 348
14.4.2 Fucoxanthin 348
14.4.3 Carotenoids 349
14.5 Conclusion 349
References 349
Index 353
1
Discovery of Novel and Biologically Active Compounds from Algae
M. Singh1*, N. Gupta2, P. Gupta3, Doli1, P. Mishra1 and A. Yadav1
1 Faculty of Pharmacy, RBS Engineering Technical Campus, Bichpuri, Agra, India
2 Faculty of Engineering & Technology, RBS Engineering Technical Campus, Bichpuri, Agra, India
3 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
The identification of new therapeutically active constituents from algae is generating growing attention due to the unique makeup of these organisms and the potential for widespread industrial use of these constituents. Recent study has concentrated on algae, which have a novel biochemical proclivity and a diverse variety of possible commercial uses, as a provider of novel biologically active constituents. The growing number of researchers are becoming interested in identifying novel physiologically active chemicals from algae, owing to its unique composition and the potential for vast commercial uses. It is very essential to identify the organisms of those species that produce bioactive secondary metabolites that could be a potential source for new drug development. A variety of constituents, such as carbohydrates, minerals, oil, proteins along with polyunsaturated fatty acids, are found in algae preparations. Additionally, biologically active constituents such as antioxidants (tocopherols or vitamin E), vitamin C and pigments (like phycobilins, carotenoids and chlorophylls) are found in algae preparations. These biologically active compounds possess different therapeutic properties, such as antimicrobial (antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal), antineoplastic, antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. They also have the potential to be used as food by humans. Algae have been discovered to be a significant source of physiologically active chemicals that may be used in a variety of goods for animals, plants, cosmetics, and medicines, among other things.
Keywords: Algae, biologically active compounds, therapeutic activities
1.1 Introduction
Water occupies almost 70% of Earth's surface. Therefore, it is a tremendous resource for the identification of novel/unique compounds with potential therapeutic uses. Over the last several decades, a vast variety of new chemicals obtained from marine creatures with pharmaceutically therapeutic benefits have been discovered. Because of this, marine resources are considered a promising source of new therapeutically active chemicals not only for the creation of active pharmaceutical ingredients but also for the development of food items [1].
The marine environment has a diverse range of fauna (sea hares, fishes, soft corals, sponges, nudibranchs, tunicates, sea slugs, bryozoans, echinoderms, shells, along with prawns) and flora (microorganisms such as micro/macroalgae, cyano-and actinobacteria, bacteria, fungi, halophytes). Among the most remarkable characteristics of marine life is the close connection that exists between different groups of creatures in order to enable them to adapt to the harsh and tough ocean circumstances that are significantly different than those that exist in a given ecosystem [2]. Phytoplankton (microalgae) have received tremendous interest nowadays because they are seen as a continuous raw material for producing a range of bioactive constituents. There are many different types of compounds that could be utilized in nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and as ingredients in some products like cosmetics. Some of these include terpenoids, amino acids, phycobiliproteins [3], fatty acids, chlorophylls, steroids, phenolic compounds, halogenated ketones, vitamins, and carotenes [4]. Photosynthetic microorganisms are known as cyanobacteria. They are Gram-negative and abundantly distributed throughout the environment. In various types of industries, including biofuel, nutrition, agriculture, and medicines, etc., they have a huge spectrum of biotechnological applications to offer [5].
Micro- and macroalgae (seaweeds), which make up the majority of marine algae, have possible potential use in different areas of biomedicine and marine pharmacology. Nowadays, tissue culture technologies are an up-and-coming area. As significant marine biological resources, algae are abundant on shallow, coastal, and backwater substrates and may be found in great quantities in shallow, coastal, and backwater habitats. It has also been discovered that algae may grow on a variety of solid objects such as rocks and stones as well as on dead corals, pebbles, and other small objects.
A surprising amount of agar is produced by algae in intertidal and shallow water, with a total production of about 6000 tonnes of total agar yield. Investigations have demonstrated that unrefined and refined compounds generated from marine algae showed significant antimicrobial action in vitro against a broad range of both Gram-negative as well as Gram-positive pathogenic microorganisms and also showed in vivo activity [6]. In addition to being interesting as research targets, because of their potential therapeutic qualities, the natural significant bioactive chemicals derived from microalgae are anticipated to be commercialized in the next several years [3].
In the aquatic environment, marine algae, including dinoflagellates (unicellular along with biflagellate organisms) and phytoplankton, are symbiotic in corals, seaweeds, and sea anemones, among other things. A wide variety of seaweeds are divided into four groups: Chlorophyta (means green algae), Rhodophyta (means Red algae), Phaeophyta (means Brown algae), and Cyanobacteria (certain filamentous Blue-green algae) [1]. Neoplasm (cancer, carcinoma or malignancy), diabetes, metabolic syndrome, obesity, chronic stress, stroke, immunological diseases and chronic respiratory sickness are all contributing to an increase in global morbidity and death. Dietary modification along with lifestyle modification are currently suggested as potential approaches to preventing or treating various ailments [3]. Furthermore, foods containing bioactive constituents may have the ability to behave as necessary nutrients. Antibiotics were formerly considered to be "magic bullets," but by picking certain bacteria for treatment, they might end up becoming a contributing factor to the spread of illness [7].
1.2 Microalgae-Derived Natural Products
Microalgae are microorganisms of only one cell in size that flourish in salt water. It also thrives in freshwater environments. Their diameter or length ranges from 3 to 10 millimeters, and they are available in a variety of forms and sizes. Microalgae include both bacterial and eukaryotic species, and the term "microalgae" applies to both [8]. Cyanobacteria are structurally comparable to bacteria in terms of their composition. They are classified as microalgae, however, because of the presence of chlorophyll and other photosynthesis-related compounds in their composition. Known as green algae due to the fact that they have the same quantities of chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b as green plants [9, 10], they have been studied extensively.
Microalgae produce biocompounds by utilizing light energy along with inorganic nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide, and other elements) and are classified as autotrophic microorganisms. They include nutrients of great nutritional value, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, polymers, and pigments, as well as medicinal properties. In recent research, it has been shown that microalgae may create a vast variety of chemical constituents (compounds) with diversified biological functions, including phycobilins, polysaccharides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, sterols, carotenoids, and vitamins, among other substances [10].
Phaeophyta, i.e., brown algae, are a well-known commercialized alginate source due to their brown color. Alginates are straight, long chains of amino acids. They consist of residues of the amino acids. Alginates are usually observed in toothpastes and ice creams, where they are employed as thickening agents, foam stabilizers, and preservatives. When taken orally, a low-density agonic acid gel formed from alginate salts operate as a "raft" that floats over the stomach content, similar to corresponding gelatine. As a result, stomach acid is prevented from refluxing into the esophagus. Therefore, sodium/magnesium salts of agonic acid are included in variety of compound antacid formulations, such as Favicon (Reckitt & Coleman) or Alicen (Rorer), among others [11]. There are wide variety of applications of algae, from biofuel production, in particular bioethanol, macro and microalgae fermentation, to enzyme extraction in the paper, textile, and detergent industries, and laboratory applications [12].
Bioactive constituents are substances that are physiologically active in the human body and have functional characteristics in the body. Many biologically active compounds that have the possibility of being used as useful components are being developed and manufactured, including polyphenols, phycocyanins, fatty acids, carotenoids, and other polyunsaturated compounds.
1.3 Bioprospecting for New Algae
Numerous new compounds were found in marine algae during the previous six decades, and a vast variety of these chemicals have been shown to have intriguing biological...
