Environmental Science
Toward A Sustainable Future: International Edition
10th Edition
Published on 8. March 2007
Book
Mixed media product
736 pages
978-0-13-205136-1 (ISBN)
Description
For introductory courses in Environmental Science, Environmental Studies, and Environmental Biology.
As the field of environmental science continues to evolve, this highly readable guide presents a full spectrum of views and information for students to evaluate issues and make informed decisions. An extensive resource package integrates text and digital media in an easy-to-use format designed to assist instructors in classroom preparation.
As the field of environmental science continues to evolve, this highly readable guide presents a full spectrum of views and information for students to evaluate issues and make informed decisions. An extensive resource package integrates text and digital media in an easy-to-use format designed to assist instructors in classroom preparation.
More details
Edition
10th edition
Language
English
Place of publication
United States
Publishing group
Pearson Education (US)
Target group
Professional and scholarly
Dimensions
Height: 276 mm
Width: 217 mm
Thickness: 23 mm
Weight
1382 gr
ISBN-13
978-0-13-205136-1 (9780132051361)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Classification
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Richard T. Wright | Dorothy F. Boorse
Environmental Science
Toward a Sustainable Future: International Edition
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05/2004
9th Edition
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Person
Richard T. Wright is Professor Emeritus of Biology at Gordon College in Massachusetts, where he taught environmental science for 28 years. He earned a B.A. from Rutgers University and a M.A. and Ph.D. in biology from Harvard University. For many years Wright received grant support from the National Science Foundation for his work in marine microbiology, and in 1981, he was a founding faculty member of Au Sable Institute of Environmental Studies in Michigan, where he also served as Academic Chairman for 11 years. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Au Sable Institute, and the American Association for the Advancement Scientific Affiliation. In 1996, Wright was appointed a Fulbright Scholar to Daystar University in Kenya, where he taught for tow months. He is a member of many environmental organizations, including The Nature Conservancy, Habitat for Humanity, the Union of Concerned Scientists, the Audubon Society, and a supporting member of the Trustees of Reservations. Wright continues to be actively involved in writing and speaking about the environment. He and his wife Ann recently moved to Byfield, Massachusetts, and they drive a Toyota Camry hybrid vehicle as a means of reducing their environmental impact. Wright spends his spare time hiking, fishing, golfing, and enjoying his three children and seven grandchildren.
Content
1 Introduction: Toward a
Sustainable Future 2
1.1 The Global Environmental Picture 5
Population Growth and Economic Development 5
The Decline of Ecosystems 6
Global Atmospheric Changes 7
Loss of Biodiversity 8
1.2 Three Strategic Themes: Sustainability,
Stewardship, and Science 8
Sustainability 9
Stewardship 11
Science 13
1.3 Three Integrative Themes: Ecosystem
Capital, Policy/Politics, and Globalization 16
Ecosystem Capital 16
Policy and Politics 17
Globalization 18
1.4 The Environment in the 21st Century 19
A New Commitment 21
Revisiting the Themes 21
Review Questions 22
Thinking Environmentally 23
? ethics What Is the Stewardship Ethic? 12
? global perspective Red Sky at Morning 20
Part One
Ecosystems: Basic Units of the
Natural World 24
2 Ecosystems: What They Are 26
2.1 Ecosystems: A Description 28
2.2 The Structure of Ecosystems 31
Trophic Categories 31
Trophic Relationships: Food Chains, Food Webs,
and Trophic Levels 35
Nonfeeding Relationships 37
Abiotic Factors 40
2.3 From Ecosystems to Global Biomes 41
The Role of Climate 41
Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors 45
Biotic Factors 45
Physical Barriers 46
Summary 46
2.4 The Human Presence 47
Three Revolutions 47
Revisiting the Themes 50
Review Questions 51
Thinking Environmentally 51
? earth watch Limiting Factors and the
Woodland Caribou in Alberta, Canada 47
? global perspective Can Ecosystems
Be Restored? 48
3 Ecosystems: How They Work 52
3.1 Matter, Energy, and Life 54
Matter in Living and Nonliving Systems 54
Energy Basics 58
Energy Changes in Organisms 60
3.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 64
Primary Production 64
Energy Flow and Efficiency 65
Running on Solar Energy 67
3.3 The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems 67
The Carbon Cycle 68
The Phosphorus Cycle 69
The Nitrogen Cycle 70
3.4 Implications for Human Societies 73
Ecosystem Sustainability 73
Value of Ecosystem Capital 74
The Future 77
Revisiting the Themes 77
Review Questions 78
Thinking Environmentally 79
? global perspective Light and Nutrients: The
Controlling Factors in Marine Ecosystems 66
? ethics Ecosystem Stakeholders 75
Contents
viii
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page viii
4 Ecosystems: How They Change 80
4.1 Dynamics of Natural Populations 82
Population Growth Curves 82
Biotic Potential versus Environmental Resistance 83
Density Dependence and Critical Number 85
4.2 Mechanisms of Population Equilibrium 85
Predator-Prey Dynamics 85
Competition 88
Introduced Species 91
4.3 Evolution as a Force for Change 95
Adaptation through Natural Selection 95
Drifting Continents 100
4.4 Ecosystem Responses to Disturbance 102
Ecological Succession 102
Disturbance and Resilience 105
Evolving Ecosystems? 107
4.5 Living Beyond Our Means 109
Managing Ecosystems 109
Pressures on Ecosystems 110
Revisiting the Themes 111
Review Questions 112
Thinking Environmentally 112
Making a Difference Part One:
Chapters 2, 3, 4 113
? guest essay The Village Weaverbird:
Marvel or Menace? 91
? earth watch Environmental Tipping Points 108
Part Two
The Human Population 114
5 The Human Population 116
5.1 Human Population Expansion and
Its Cause 118
Reasons for the Patterns of Growth 118
5.2 Different Worlds 121
Rich Nations, Poor Nations 121
Population Growth in Rich and Poor Nations 121
Different Populations, Different Problems 123
5.3 Consequences of Population Growth
and Affluence 124
The Developing Countries 125
Affluence 128
5.4 Dynamics of Population Growth 130
Population Profiles 130
Future Populations 132
Population Momentum 135
The Demographic Transition 136
Revisiting the Themes 139
Review Questions 140
Thinking Environmentally 141
? ethics Immigration: An American Tradition 128
? earth watch Are We Living Longer? 132
6 Population and Development 142
6.1 Reassessing the Demographic Transition 144
Large Families or Small? 145
6.2 Promoting Development 148
Good and Bad News 148
Millennium Development Goals 150
World Agencies at Work 152
The Debt Crisis 153
Development Aid 154
6.3 A New Direction: Social Modernization 156
Improving Education 156
Improving Health 157
AIDS 157
Family Planning 158
Employment and Income 160
Resource Management 161
Putting It All Together 162
6.4 The Cairo Conference 162
Revisiting the Themes 163
Review Questions 164
Thinking Environmentally 165
Making a Difference Part Two:
Chapters 5 and 6 165
? guest essay Poverty Traps and Natural
Resources Management 149
? ethics China's Population Policies 160
Contents ix
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page ix
Part Three
Renewable Resources 166
7 Water: Hydrologic Cycle and
Human Use 168
7.1 Water: A Vital Resource 170
7.2 Hydrologic Cycle: Natural Cycle,
Human Impacts 170
Evaporation, Condensation, and Purification 170
Precipitation 173
Groundwater 174
Pools and Fluxes in the Cycle 175
Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle 175
7.3 Water: A Resource to Manage,
a Threat to Control 177
Uses and Sources 177
Surface Waters 180
Groundwater 182
7.4 Water Stewardship: Public Policy
Challenges 185
Obtaining More Water 185
Using Less Water 187
Public-Policy Challenges 189
Revisiting the Themes 191
Review Questions 192
Thinking Environmentally 193
? global perspective Water: Key to Life and
Progress in Darewadi 185
? global perspective The Fourth World
Water Forum 190
8 Soil: Foundation for Land
Ecosystems 194
8.1 Soil and Plants 196
Soil Characteristics 196
Soil and Plant Growth 199
The Soil Community 201
8.2 Soil Degradation 203
Erosion 204
Drylands and Desertification 205
Causing and Correcting Erosion 207
Irrigation and Salinization 211
8.3 Conserving the Soil 212
Public Policy and Soils 212
Helping Individual Landholders 213
Revisiting the Themes 216
Review Questions 216
Thinking Environmentally 217
? ethics Erosion by Equation 210
? global perspective Three-Strata
Forage System for Mountainous Drylands 214
x Contents
9 The Production and Distribution
of Food 218
9.1 Crops and Animals: Major Patterns
of Food Production 220
The Development of Modern Industrialized
Agriculture 220
The Green Revolution 222
Subsistence Agriculture in the
Developing World 223
Animal Farming and Its Consequences 224
Prospects for Increasing Food
Production 226
9.2 From Green Revolution to Gene
Revolution 228
The Promise 228
The Problems 230
Policies 231
9.3 Food Distribution and Trade 232
Patterns in Food Trade 232
Food Security 233
9.4 Hunger, Malnutrition, and Famine 236
Nutrition vs. Hunger 236
Extent and Consequences of Hunger 237
Root Cause of Hunger 238
Famine 238
Hunger Hot Spots 240
Food Aid 240
Closing Thoughts on Hunger 241
Revisiting the Themes 242
Review Questions 243
Thinking Environmentally 243
? ethics Feeding the Hungry in the
United States 234
? global perspective World Food Summit 236
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page x
Contents xi
10 Wild Species and Biodiversity 244
10.1 The Value of Wild Species 246
Biological Wealth 246
Two Kinds of Value 246
Sources for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture,
and Animal Husbandry 247
Sources for Medicine 248
Recreational, Aesthetic, and Scientific Value 249
Value for Their Own Sake 249
10.2 Saving Wild Species 251
Game Animals in the United States 251
Protecting Endangered Species 253
10.3 Biodiversity and Its Decline 258
The Decline of Biodiversity 259
Reasons for the Decline 261
Consequences of Losing Biodiversity 265
10.4 Protecting Biodiversity 266
International Developments 266
Stewardship Concerns 267
Revisiting the Themes 269
Review Questions 270
Thinking Environmentally 271
? earth watch Return of the Gray Wolf 257
? global perspective Biodiversity:
Essential or Not? 266
11 Ecosystem Capital: Use and
Restoration 272
11.1 Global Perspective on Biological
Systems 274
Major Systems and Their Goods and Services 274
Ecosystems as Natural Resources 274
11.2 Conservation, Preservation, Restoration 276
Conservation Versus Preservation 276
Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems 277
Restoration 280
11.3 Biomes and Ecosystems under Pressure 283
Forest Biomes 283
Ocean Ecosystems 287
11.4 Public and Private Lands in the
United States294
National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges 295
National Forests 296
Protecting Nonfederal Lands 298
Final Thoughts 299
Revisiting the Themes 299
Review Questions 300
Thinking Environmentally 301
Making a Difference Part Three:
Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 301
? earth watch Will Aquaculture Be Able to
Fill the Gap? 289
? global perspective The Mangrove Man 295
Part Four
Energy 302
12 Energy from Fossil Fuels 304
12.1 Energy Sources and Uses 306
Harnessing Energy Sources: An Overview 306
Electrical Power Production 308
Matching Sources to Uses 311
12.2 Exploiting Crude Oil 312
How Fossil Fuels Are Formed 313
Crude-Oil Reserves Versus Production 314
Declining U.S. Reserves and Increasing
Importation 314
Problems of Growing U.S. Dependency on
Foreign Oil 317
12.3 Other Fossil Fuels 321
Natural Gas 321
Coal 322
Oil Shales and Oil Sands 323
12.4 Energy Security and Policy 323
Security Threats 323
Energy Policies 324
Revisiting the Themes 327
Review Questions 328
Thinking Environmentally 329
? earth watch CHP: Industrial Common Sense 326
13 Energy from Nuclear Power 330
13.1 Nuclear Energy in Perspective 332
13.2 How Nuclear Power Works 334
From Mass to Energy 334
Comparing Nuclear Power with Coal Power 337
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xi
13.3 The Hazards and Costs of Nuclear
Power Facilities 339
Radioactive Emissions 339
Radioactive Wastes 341
Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 341
Nuclear Power Accidents 343
Safety and Nuclear Power 346
Economics of Nuclear Power 347
13.4 More Advanced Reactors 349
Breeder (Fast-neutron) Reactors 349
Fusion Reactors 349
13.5 The Future of Nuclear Power 351
Opposition 351
Rebirth of Nuclear Power 351
Revisiting the Themes 352
Review Questions 353
Thinking Environmentally 353
? ethics Showdown in the New West 344
14 Renewable Energy 354
14.1 Putting Solar Energy to Work 357
Principles of Solar Energy 357
Solar Heating of Water 358
Solar Space Heating 358
Solar Production of Electricity 361
The Future of Solar Energy 364
14.2 Indirect Solar Energy 365
Hydropower 365
Wind Power 367
Biomass Energy 368
14.3 Renewable Energy for Transportation 369
Biofuels 370
Hydrogen: Highway to the Future? 371
14.4 Additional Renewable-
Energy Options 374
Geothermal Energy 374
Tidal Power 374
Ocean Thermal-Energy Conversion 375
14.5 Policies for a Sustainable-
Energy Future 375
National Energy Policy 375
Revisiting the Themes 379
Review Questions 380
Thinking Environmentally 380
Making a Difference, Part Four:
Chapters 12, 13, and 14 381
? earth watch Economic Payoff of
Solar Energy 365
? ethics Transfer of Energy Technology to the
Developing World 366
? guest essay Caring for Planet Earth through
the Proper Use of Our Energy Resources 378
xii Contents
Part Five
Pollution and Prevention 382
15 Environmental Hazards and
Human Health 384
15.1 Links between Human Health
and the Environment 386
The Picture of Health 387
Public Health 387
Environmental Hazards 387
15.2 Pathways of Risk 394
The Risks of Being Poor 394
The Cultural Risk of Tobacco Use 396
Risk and Infectious Diseases 397
Toxic Risk Pathways 399
Disaster Risk 401
15.3 Risk Assessment 402
Environmental Risk Assessment
by the EPA 403
Public-Health Risk Assessment 404
Risk Management 405
Risk Perception 406
Revisiting the Themes 407
Review Questions 409
Thinking Environmentally 409
? global perspective An Unwelcome
Globalization 400
16 Pests and Pest Control 410
16.1 The Need for Pest Control 412
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xii
Contents xiii
16.2 Promises and Problems of the
Chemical Approach 414
Development of Chemical Pesticides and
Their Successes 414
Problems Stemming from Chemical
Pesticide Use 415
16.3 Alternative Pest Control Methods 421
Cultural Control 422
Control by Natural Enemies 423
Genetic Control 425
Natural Chemical Control 428
16.4 Socioeconomic Issues in Pest
Management 429
Pressures to Use Pesticides 429
Integrated Pest Management 430
Organically Grown Food 431
16.5 Pesticides and Policy 432
FIFRA 432
FFDCA 433
Pesticides in Developing Countries 433
Revisiting the Themes 434
Review Questions 435
Thinking Environmentally 435
? ethics DDT for Malaria Control:
Hero or Villain? 416
? global perspective Wasps 1,
Mealybugs O 426
17 Water Pollution and
Its Prevention 436
17.1 Water Pollution 438
Pollution Essentials 438
Water Pollution: Sources, Types, Criteria 440
17.2 Wastewater Management and
Treatment 447
Development of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment Systems 447
The Pollutants in Raw Wastewater 447
Removing the Pollutants from Wastewater 449
Treatment of Sludge 451
Alternative Treatment Systems 452
17.3 Eutrophication 454
Different Kinds of Aquatic Plants 454
The Impacts of Nutrient Enrichment 455
Combating Eutrophication 455
17.4 Public Policy 460
Revisiting the Themes 461
Review Questions 462
Thinking Environmentally 463
? earth watch Monitoring for Sewage
Contamination 443
? earth watch The Algae from Hell 458
18 Municipal Solid Waste:
Disposal and Recovery 464
18.1 The Solid-Waste Problem 466
Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste 466
Landfills 467
Combustion: Waste to Energy 470
Costs of Municipal Solid-Waste Disposal 472
18.2 Solutions to the Solid-Waste Problem 472
Source Reduction 472
The Recycling Solution 473
Municipal Recycling 474
Regional Recycling Options 478
18.3 Public Policy and Waste Management 478
The Regulatory Perspective 479
Integrated Waste Management 479
Revisiting the Themes 482
Review Questions 482
Thinking Environmentally 483
? earth watch The Nantucket Story 479
? ethics "Affluenza": Do You Have It? 481
19 Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution
and Prevention 484
19.1 Toxicology and Chemical Hazards 486
Dose Response and Threshold 486
The Nature of Chemical Hazards: HAZMATs 486
Sources of Chemicals Entering the Environment 487
The Threat from Toxic Chemicals 488
Involvement with Food Chains 491
19.2 A History of Mismanagement 491
Methods of Land Disposal 491
Scope of the Mismanagement Problem 494
19.3 Cleaning Up the Mess 496
Ensuring Safe Drinking Water 496
Groundwater Remediation 496
Superfund for Toxic Sites 496
19.4 Managing Current Hazardous Wastes 500
The Clean Air and Water Acts 501
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) 501
Reduction of Accidents and Accidental
Exposures 502
19.5 Broader Issues 503
Environmental Justice and Hazardous Wastes 503
Pollution Prevention for a Sustainable Society 505
Revisiting the Themes 506
Review Questions 507
Thinking Environmentally 507
? earth watch Woburn's "Civil Action" 499
? earth watch Daniel S. Granz, EPA
Environmental Engineer 500
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiii
20 The Atmosphere: Climate,
Climate Change, and Ozone
Depletion 508
20.1 Atmosphere and Weather 510
Atmospheric Structure 510
Weather 510
20.2 Climate 512
Climates in the Past 513
Ocean and Atmosphere 513
20.3 Global Climate Change 515
The Earth as a Greenhouse 515
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
Fourth Assessment 517
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 528
What About the Antarctic? 529
20.4 Response to Climate Change 530
Response 1: Mitigation 530
Response 2: Adaptation 533
20.5 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 534
Radiation and Importance of the Shield 534
Formation and Breakdown of the Shield 535
Coming to Grips with Ozone Depletion 538
Revisiting the Themes 540
Review Questions 541
Thinking Environmentally 541
? ethics Stewardship of the Atmosphere 518
? global perspective Coping with UV
Radiation 536
21 Atmospheric Pollution 542
21.1 Air Pollution Essentials 544
Pollutants and Atmospheric Cleansing 544
The Appearance of Smog 545
21.2 Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources 546
Primary Pollutants 547
Secondary Pollutants 549
Acid Deposition 551
21.3 Impacts of Air Pollutants 555
Effects on Human Health 556
Effects on the Environment 558
21.4 Bringing Air Pollution Under Control 561
Control Strategies 562
Limiting Pollutants from Motor Vehicles 562
Coping with Acid Deposition 565
21.5 Regulatory Issues 567
Revisiting the Themes 569
Review Questions 570
Thinking Environmentally 571
Making a Difference Part Five:
Chapters 15 through 21 571
? global perspective Mexico City: Life in a
Gas Chamber 548
? earth watch Portland Takes a Right Turn 568
xiv Contents
Part Six
Toward a Sustainable Future 572
22 Economics, Public Policy,
and the Environment 574
22.1 Economics and Public Policy 576
The Need for Environmental
Public Policy 576
Relationships between Economic
Development and the Environment 577
Economic Systems 577
22.2 Resources and the Wealth of Nations 579
The Wealth of Nations 580
Shortcomings of the GNP 584
Resource Distribution 585
22.3 Pollution and Public Policy 586
Public Policy Development:
The Policy Life Cycle 586
Economic Effects of Environmental
Public Policy 588
Policy Options: Market or Regulatory? 591
22.4 Benefit-Cost Analysis 592
External and Internal Costs 592
The Costs of Environmental Regulations 592
The Benefits of Environmental Regulation 594
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 595
22.5 Politics, the Public, and Public Policy 596
Politics and the Environment 596
Citizen Involvement 598
Revisiting the Themes 598
Review Questions 599
Thinking Environmentally 599
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiv
Contents xv
? global perspective The World Trade
Organization 581
? guest essay A Transformational
Environmental Policy 589
? earth watch Green Fees and Taxes 592
23 Sustainable Communities
and Lifestyles 600
23.1 Urban Sprawl 602
The Origins of Urban Sprawl 603
Measuring Sprawl 606
Impacts of Urban Sprawl 607
Reining in Urban Sprawl: Smart Growth 609
23.2 Urban Blight 610
Economic and Ethnic Segregation 610
The Vicious Cycle of Urban Blight 610
Economic Exclusion of the Inner City 612
Urban Blight in Developing Countries 612
What Makes Cities Livable? 614
23.3 Moving toward Sustainable
Communities 616
Sustainable Cities 616
Sustainable Communities 617
23.4 Toward the Common Good 619
Our Dilemma 619
Lifestyle Changes 620
Revisiting the Themes 622
Review Questions 623
Thinking Environmentally 623
Making a Difference Part Six:
Chapters 22 and 23 623
? ethics The Tangier Island Covenant 620
Appendix A Environmental
Organizations 625
Appendix B Units of Measure 629
Appendix C Some Basic Chemical
Concepts 631
Credits 639
Glossary 643
Index 667
Sustainable Future 2
1.1 The Global Environmental Picture 5
Population Growth and Economic Development 5
The Decline of Ecosystems 6
Global Atmospheric Changes 7
Loss of Biodiversity 8
1.2 Three Strategic Themes: Sustainability,
Stewardship, and Science 8
Sustainability 9
Stewardship 11
Science 13
1.3 Three Integrative Themes: Ecosystem
Capital, Policy/Politics, and Globalization 16
Ecosystem Capital 16
Policy and Politics 17
Globalization 18
1.4 The Environment in the 21st Century 19
A New Commitment 21
Revisiting the Themes 21
Review Questions 22
Thinking Environmentally 23
? ethics What Is the Stewardship Ethic? 12
? global perspective Red Sky at Morning 20
Part One
Ecosystems: Basic Units of the
Natural World 24
2 Ecosystems: What They Are 26
2.1 Ecosystems: A Description 28
2.2 The Structure of Ecosystems 31
Trophic Categories 31
Trophic Relationships: Food Chains, Food Webs,
and Trophic Levels 35
Nonfeeding Relationships 37
Abiotic Factors 40
2.3 From Ecosystems to Global Biomes 41
The Role of Climate 41
Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors 45
Biotic Factors 45
Physical Barriers 46
Summary 46
2.4 The Human Presence 47
Three Revolutions 47
Revisiting the Themes 50
Review Questions 51
Thinking Environmentally 51
? earth watch Limiting Factors and the
Woodland Caribou in Alberta, Canada 47
? global perspective Can Ecosystems
Be Restored? 48
3 Ecosystems: How They Work 52
3.1 Matter, Energy, and Life 54
Matter in Living and Nonliving Systems 54
Energy Basics 58
Energy Changes in Organisms 60
3.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 64
Primary Production 64
Energy Flow and Efficiency 65
Running on Solar Energy 67
3.3 The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems 67
The Carbon Cycle 68
The Phosphorus Cycle 69
The Nitrogen Cycle 70
3.4 Implications for Human Societies 73
Ecosystem Sustainability 73
Value of Ecosystem Capital 74
The Future 77
Revisiting the Themes 77
Review Questions 78
Thinking Environmentally 79
? global perspective Light and Nutrients: The
Controlling Factors in Marine Ecosystems 66
? ethics Ecosystem Stakeholders 75
Contents
viii
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page viii
4 Ecosystems: How They Change 80
4.1 Dynamics of Natural Populations 82
Population Growth Curves 82
Biotic Potential versus Environmental Resistance 83
Density Dependence and Critical Number 85
4.2 Mechanisms of Population Equilibrium 85
Predator-Prey Dynamics 85
Competition 88
Introduced Species 91
4.3 Evolution as a Force for Change 95
Adaptation through Natural Selection 95
Drifting Continents 100
4.4 Ecosystem Responses to Disturbance 102
Ecological Succession 102
Disturbance and Resilience 105
Evolving Ecosystems? 107
4.5 Living Beyond Our Means 109
Managing Ecosystems 109
Pressures on Ecosystems 110
Revisiting the Themes 111
Review Questions 112
Thinking Environmentally 112
Making a Difference Part One:
Chapters 2, 3, 4 113
? guest essay The Village Weaverbird:
Marvel or Menace? 91
? earth watch Environmental Tipping Points 108
Part Two
The Human Population 114
5 The Human Population 116
5.1 Human Population Expansion and
Its Cause 118
Reasons for the Patterns of Growth 118
5.2 Different Worlds 121
Rich Nations, Poor Nations 121
Population Growth in Rich and Poor Nations 121
Different Populations, Different Problems 123
5.3 Consequences of Population Growth
and Affluence 124
The Developing Countries 125
Affluence 128
5.4 Dynamics of Population Growth 130
Population Profiles 130
Future Populations 132
Population Momentum 135
The Demographic Transition 136
Revisiting the Themes 139
Review Questions 140
Thinking Environmentally 141
? ethics Immigration: An American Tradition 128
? earth watch Are We Living Longer? 132
6 Population and Development 142
6.1 Reassessing the Demographic Transition 144
Large Families or Small? 145
6.2 Promoting Development 148
Good and Bad News 148
Millennium Development Goals 150
World Agencies at Work 152
The Debt Crisis 153
Development Aid 154
6.3 A New Direction: Social Modernization 156
Improving Education 156
Improving Health 157
AIDS 157
Family Planning 158
Employment and Income 160
Resource Management 161
Putting It All Together 162
6.4 The Cairo Conference 162
Revisiting the Themes 163
Review Questions 164
Thinking Environmentally 165
Making a Difference Part Two:
Chapters 5 and 6 165
? guest essay Poverty Traps and Natural
Resources Management 149
? ethics China's Population Policies 160
Contents ix
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page ix
Part Three
Renewable Resources 166
7 Water: Hydrologic Cycle and
Human Use 168
7.1 Water: A Vital Resource 170
7.2 Hydrologic Cycle: Natural Cycle,
Human Impacts 170
Evaporation, Condensation, and Purification 170
Precipitation 173
Groundwater 174
Pools and Fluxes in the Cycle 175
Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle 175
7.3 Water: A Resource to Manage,
a Threat to Control 177
Uses and Sources 177
Surface Waters 180
Groundwater 182
7.4 Water Stewardship: Public Policy
Challenges 185
Obtaining More Water 185
Using Less Water 187
Public-Policy Challenges 189
Revisiting the Themes 191
Review Questions 192
Thinking Environmentally 193
? global perspective Water: Key to Life and
Progress in Darewadi 185
? global perspective The Fourth World
Water Forum 190
8 Soil: Foundation for Land
Ecosystems 194
8.1 Soil and Plants 196
Soil Characteristics 196
Soil and Plant Growth 199
The Soil Community 201
8.2 Soil Degradation 203
Erosion 204
Drylands and Desertification 205
Causing and Correcting Erosion 207
Irrigation and Salinization 211
8.3 Conserving the Soil 212
Public Policy and Soils 212
Helping Individual Landholders 213
Revisiting the Themes 216
Review Questions 216
Thinking Environmentally 217
? ethics Erosion by Equation 210
? global perspective Three-Strata
Forage System for Mountainous Drylands 214
x Contents
9 The Production and Distribution
of Food 218
9.1 Crops and Animals: Major Patterns
of Food Production 220
The Development of Modern Industrialized
Agriculture 220
The Green Revolution 222
Subsistence Agriculture in the
Developing World 223
Animal Farming and Its Consequences 224
Prospects for Increasing Food
Production 226
9.2 From Green Revolution to Gene
Revolution 228
The Promise 228
The Problems 230
Policies 231
9.3 Food Distribution and Trade 232
Patterns in Food Trade 232
Food Security 233
9.4 Hunger, Malnutrition, and Famine 236
Nutrition vs. Hunger 236
Extent and Consequences of Hunger 237
Root Cause of Hunger 238
Famine 238
Hunger Hot Spots 240
Food Aid 240
Closing Thoughts on Hunger 241
Revisiting the Themes 242
Review Questions 243
Thinking Environmentally 243
? ethics Feeding the Hungry in the
United States 234
? global perspective World Food Summit 236
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Contents xi
10 Wild Species and Biodiversity 244
10.1 The Value of Wild Species 246
Biological Wealth 246
Two Kinds of Value 246
Sources for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture,
and Animal Husbandry 247
Sources for Medicine 248
Recreational, Aesthetic, and Scientific Value 249
Value for Their Own Sake 249
10.2 Saving Wild Species 251
Game Animals in the United States 251
Protecting Endangered Species 253
10.3 Biodiversity and Its Decline 258
The Decline of Biodiversity 259
Reasons for the Decline 261
Consequences of Losing Biodiversity 265
10.4 Protecting Biodiversity 266
International Developments 266
Stewardship Concerns 267
Revisiting the Themes 269
Review Questions 270
Thinking Environmentally 271
? earth watch Return of the Gray Wolf 257
? global perspective Biodiversity:
Essential or Not? 266
11 Ecosystem Capital: Use and
Restoration 272
11.1 Global Perspective on Biological
Systems 274
Major Systems and Their Goods and Services 274
Ecosystems as Natural Resources 274
11.2 Conservation, Preservation, Restoration 276
Conservation Versus Preservation 276
Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems 277
Restoration 280
11.3 Biomes and Ecosystems under Pressure 283
Forest Biomes 283
Ocean Ecosystems 287
11.4 Public and Private Lands in the
United States294
National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges 295
National Forests 296
Protecting Nonfederal Lands 298
Final Thoughts 299
Revisiting the Themes 299
Review Questions 300
Thinking Environmentally 301
Making a Difference Part Three:
Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 301
? earth watch Will Aquaculture Be Able to
Fill the Gap? 289
? global perspective The Mangrove Man 295
Part Four
Energy 302
12 Energy from Fossil Fuels 304
12.1 Energy Sources and Uses 306
Harnessing Energy Sources: An Overview 306
Electrical Power Production 308
Matching Sources to Uses 311
12.2 Exploiting Crude Oil 312
How Fossil Fuels Are Formed 313
Crude-Oil Reserves Versus Production 314
Declining U.S. Reserves and Increasing
Importation 314
Problems of Growing U.S. Dependency on
Foreign Oil 317
12.3 Other Fossil Fuels 321
Natural Gas 321
Coal 322
Oil Shales and Oil Sands 323
12.4 Energy Security and Policy 323
Security Threats 323
Energy Policies 324
Revisiting the Themes 327
Review Questions 328
Thinking Environmentally 329
? earth watch CHP: Industrial Common Sense 326
13 Energy from Nuclear Power 330
13.1 Nuclear Energy in Perspective 332
13.2 How Nuclear Power Works 334
From Mass to Energy 334
Comparing Nuclear Power with Coal Power 337
WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xi
13.3 The Hazards and Costs of Nuclear
Power Facilities 339
Radioactive Emissions 339
Radioactive Wastes 341
Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 341
Nuclear Power Accidents 343
Safety and Nuclear Power 346
Economics of Nuclear Power 347
13.4 More Advanced Reactors 349
Breeder (Fast-neutron) Reactors 349
Fusion Reactors 349
13.5 The Future of Nuclear Power 351
Opposition 351
Rebirth of Nuclear Power 351
Revisiting the Themes 352
Review Questions 353
Thinking Environmentally 353
? ethics Showdown in the New West 344
14 Renewable Energy 354
14.1 Putting Solar Energy to Work 357
Principles of Solar Energy 357
Solar Heating of Water 358
Solar Space Heating 358
Solar Production of Electricity 361
The Future of Solar Energy 364
14.2 Indirect Solar Energy 365
Hydropower 365
Wind Power 367
Biomass Energy 368
14.3 Renewable Energy for Transportation 369
Biofuels 370
Hydrogen: Highway to the Future? 371
14.4 Additional Renewable-
Energy Options 374
Geothermal Energy 374
Tidal Power 374
Ocean Thermal-Energy Conversion 375
14.5 Policies for a Sustainable-
Energy Future 375
National Energy Policy 375
Revisiting the Themes 379
Review Questions 380
Thinking Environmentally 380
Making a Difference, Part Four:
Chapters 12, 13, and 14 381
? earth watch Economic Payoff of
Solar Energy 365
? ethics Transfer of Energy Technology to the
Developing World 366
? guest essay Caring for Planet Earth through
the Proper Use of Our Energy Resources 378
xii Contents
Part Five
Pollution and Prevention 382
15 Environmental Hazards and
Human Health 384
15.1 Links between Human Health
and the Environment 386
The Picture of Health 387
Public Health 387
Environmental Hazards 387
15.2 Pathways of Risk 394
The Risks of Being Poor 394
The Cultural Risk of Tobacco Use 396
Risk and Infectious Diseases 397
Toxic Risk Pathways 399
Disaster Risk 401
15.3 Risk Assessment 402
Environmental Risk Assessment
by the EPA 403
Public-Health Risk Assessment 404
Risk Management 405
Risk Perception 406
Revisiting the Themes 407
Review Questions 409
Thinking Environmentally 409
? global perspective An Unwelcome
Globalization 400
16 Pests and Pest Control 410
16.1 The Need for Pest Control 412
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Contents xiii
16.2 Promises and Problems of the
Chemical Approach 414
Development of Chemical Pesticides and
Their Successes 414
Problems Stemming from Chemical
Pesticide Use 415
16.3 Alternative Pest Control Methods 421
Cultural Control 422
Control by Natural Enemies 423
Genetic Control 425
Natural Chemical Control 428
16.4 Socioeconomic Issues in Pest
Management 429
Pressures to Use Pesticides 429
Integrated Pest Management 430
Organically Grown Food 431
16.5 Pesticides and Policy 432
FIFRA 432
FFDCA 433
Pesticides in Developing Countries 433
Revisiting the Themes 434
Review Questions 435
Thinking Environmentally 435
? ethics DDT for Malaria Control:
Hero or Villain? 416
? global perspective Wasps 1,
Mealybugs O 426
17 Water Pollution and
Its Prevention 436
17.1 Water Pollution 438
Pollution Essentials 438
Water Pollution: Sources, Types, Criteria 440
17.2 Wastewater Management and
Treatment 447
Development of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment Systems 447
The Pollutants in Raw Wastewater 447
Removing the Pollutants from Wastewater 449
Treatment of Sludge 451
Alternative Treatment Systems 452
17.3 Eutrophication 454
Different Kinds of Aquatic Plants 454
The Impacts of Nutrient Enrichment 455
Combating Eutrophication 455
17.4 Public Policy 460
Revisiting the Themes 461
Review Questions 462
Thinking Environmentally 463
? earth watch Monitoring for Sewage
Contamination 443
? earth watch The Algae from Hell 458
18 Municipal Solid Waste:
Disposal and Recovery 464
18.1 The Solid-Waste Problem 466
Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste 466
Landfills 467
Combustion: Waste to Energy 470
Costs of Municipal Solid-Waste Disposal 472
18.2 Solutions to the Solid-Waste Problem 472
Source Reduction 472
The Recycling Solution 473
Municipal Recycling 474
Regional Recycling Options 478
18.3 Public Policy and Waste Management 478
The Regulatory Perspective 479
Integrated Waste Management 479
Revisiting the Themes 482
Review Questions 482
Thinking Environmentally 483
? earth watch The Nantucket Story 479
? ethics "Affluenza": Do You Have It? 481
19 Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution
and Prevention 484
19.1 Toxicology and Chemical Hazards 486
Dose Response and Threshold 486
The Nature of Chemical Hazards: HAZMATs 486
Sources of Chemicals Entering the Environment 487
The Threat from Toxic Chemicals 488
Involvement with Food Chains 491
19.2 A History of Mismanagement 491
Methods of Land Disposal 491
Scope of the Mismanagement Problem 494
19.3 Cleaning Up the Mess 496
Ensuring Safe Drinking Water 496
Groundwater Remediation 496
Superfund for Toxic Sites 496
19.4 Managing Current Hazardous Wastes 500
The Clean Air and Water Acts 501
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) 501
Reduction of Accidents and Accidental
Exposures 502
19.5 Broader Issues 503
Environmental Justice and Hazardous Wastes 503
Pollution Prevention for a Sustainable Society 505
Revisiting the Themes 506
Review Questions 507
Thinking Environmentally 507
? earth watch Woburn's "Civil Action" 499
? earth watch Daniel S. Granz, EPA
Environmental Engineer 500
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20 The Atmosphere: Climate,
Climate Change, and Ozone
Depletion 508
20.1 Atmosphere and Weather 510
Atmospheric Structure 510
Weather 510
20.2 Climate 512
Climates in the Past 513
Ocean and Atmosphere 513
20.3 Global Climate Change 515
The Earth as a Greenhouse 515
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
Fourth Assessment 517
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 528
What About the Antarctic? 529
20.4 Response to Climate Change 530
Response 1: Mitigation 530
Response 2: Adaptation 533
20.5 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 534
Radiation and Importance of the Shield 534
Formation and Breakdown of the Shield 535
Coming to Grips with Ozone Depletion 538
Revisiting the Themes 540
Review Questions 541
Thinking Environmentally 541
? ethics Stewardship of the Atmosphere 518
? global perspective Coping with UV
Radiation 536
21 Atmospheric Pollution 542
21.1 Air Pollution Essentials 544
Pollutants and Atmospheric Cleansing 544
The Appearance of Smog 545
21.2 Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources 546
Primary Pollutants 547
Secondary Pollutants 549
Acid Deposition 551
21.3 Impacts of Air Pollutants 555
Effects on Human Health 556
Effects on the Environment 558
21.4 Bringing Air Pollution Under Control 561
Control Strategies 562
Limiting Pollutants from Motor Vehicles 562
Coping with Acid Deposition 565
21.5 Regulatory Issues 567
Revisiting the Themes 569
Review Questions 570
Thinking Environmentally 571
Making a Difference Part Five:
Chapters 15 through 21 571
? global perspective Mexico City: Life in a
Gas Chamber 548
? earth watch Portland Takes a Right Turn 568
xiv Contents
Part Six
Toward a Sustainable Future 572
22 Economics, Public Policy,
and the Environment 574
22.1 Economics and Public Policy 576
The Need for Environmental
Public Policy 576
Relationships between Economic
Development and the Environment 577
Economic Systems 577
22.2 Resources and the Wealth of Nations 579
The Wealth of Nations 580
Shortcomings of the GNP 584
Resource Distribution 585
22.3 Pollution and Public Policy 586
Public Policy Development:
The Policy Life Cycle 586
Economic Effects of Environmental
Public Policy 588
Policy Options: Market or Regulatory? 591
22.4 Benefit-Cost Analysis 592
External and Internal Costs 592
The Costs of Environmental Regulations 592
The Benefits of Environmental Regulation 594
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 595
22.5 Politics, the Public, and Public Policy 596
Politics and the Environment 596
Citizen Involvement 598
Revisiting the Themes 598
Review Questions 599
Thinking Environmentally 599
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Contents xv
? global perspective The World Trade
Organization 581
? guest essay A Transformational
Environmental Policy 589
? earth watch Green Fees and Taxes 592
23 Sustainable Communities
and Lifestyles 600
23.1 Urban Sprawl 602
The Origins of Urban Sprawl 603
Measuring Sprawl 606
Impacts of Urban Sprawl 607
Reining in Urban Sprawl: Smart Growth 609
23.2 Urban Blight 610
Economic and Ethnic Segregation 610
The Vicious Cycle of Urban Blight 610
Economic Exclusion of the Inner City 612
Urban Blight in Developing Countries 612
What Makes Cities Livable? 614
23.3 Moving toward Sustainable
Communities 616
Sustainable Cities 616
Sustainable Communities 617
23.4 Toward the Common Good 619
Our Dilemma 619
Lifestyle Changes 620
Revisiting the Themes 622
Review Questions 623
Thinking Environmentally 623
Making a Difference Part Six:
Chapters 22 and 23 623
? ethics The Tangier Island Covenant 620
Appendix A Environmental
Organizations 625
Appendix B Units of Measure 629
Appendix C Some Basic Chemical
Concepts 631
Credits 639
Glossary 643
Index 667