Power Generation, Operation and Control

Preface to the Third Edition xvii Preface to the Second Edition xix Preface to the First Edition xxi Acknowledgment xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose of the Course / 1 1.2 Course Scope / 2 1.3 Economic Importance / 2 1.4 Deregulation: Vertical to Horizontal / 3 1.5 Problems: New and Old / 3 1.6 Characteristics of Steam Units / 6 1.7 Renewable Energy / 22 APPENDIX 1A Typical Generation Data / 26 APPENDIX 1B Fossil Fuel Prices / 28 APPENDIX 1C Unit Statistics / 29 References for Generation Systems / 31 Further Reading / 31 2 Industrial Organization, Managerial Economics, and Finance 35 2.1 Introduction / 35 2.2 Business Environments / 36 2.3 Theory of the Firm / 40 2.4 Competitive Market Solutions / 42 2.5 Supplier Solutions / 45 2.6 Cost of Electric Energy Production / 53 2.7 Evolving Markets / 54 2.8 Multiple Company Environments / 58 2.9 Uncertainty and Reliability / 61 PROBLEMS / 61 Reference / 62 3 Economic Dispatch of Thermal Units and Methods of Solution 63 3.1 The Economic Dispatch Problem / 63 3.2 Economic Dispatch with Piecewise Linear Cost Functions / 68 3.3 LP Method / 69 3.4 The Lambda Iteration Method / 73 3.5 Economic Dispatch Via Binary Search / 76 3.6 Economic Dispatch Using Dynamic Programming / 78 3.7 Composite Generation Production Cost Function / 81 3.8 Base Point and Participation Factors / 85 3.9 Thermal System Dispatching with Network Losses Considered / 88 3.10 The Concept of Locational Marginal Price (LMP) / 92 3.11 Auction Mechanisms / 95 APPENDIX 3A Optimization Within Constraints / 106 APPENDIX 3B Linear Programming (LP) / 117 APPENDIX 3C Non-Linear Programming / 128 APPENDIX 3D Dynamic Programming (DP) / 128 APPENDIX 3E Convex Optimization / 135 PROBLEMS / 138 References / 146 4 Unit Commitment 147 4.1 Introduction / 147 4.2 Unit Commitment Solution Methods / 155 4.3 Security-Constrained Unit Commitment (SCUC) / 167 4.4 Daily Auctions Using a Unit Commitment / 167 APPENDIX 4A Dual Optimization on a Nonconvex Problem / 167 APPENDIX 4B Dynamic-Programming Solution to Unit Commitment / 173 4B.1 Introduction / 173 4B.2 Forward DP Approach / 174 PROBLEMS / 182 5 Generation with Limited Energy Supply 187 5.1 Introduction / 187 5.2 Fuel Scheduling / 188 5.3 Take-or-Pay Fuel Supply Contract / 188 5.4 Complex Take-or-Pay Fuel Supply Models / 194 5.5 Fuel Scheduling by Linear Programming / 195 5.6 Introduction to Hydrothermal Coordination / 202 5.7 Hydroelectric Plant Models / 204 5.8 Scheduling Problems / 207 5.9 The Hydrothermal Scheduling Problem / 211 5.10 Hydro-Scheduling using Linear Programming / 222 APPENDIX 5A Dynamic-Programming Solution to hydrothermal Scheduling / 225 5.A.1 Dynamic Programming Example / 227 PROBLEMS / 234 6 Transmission System Effects 243 6.1 Introduction / 243 6.2 Conversion of Equipment Data to Bus and Branch Data / 247 6.3 Substation Bus Processing / 248 6.4 Equipment Modeling / 248 6.5 Dispatcher Power Flow for Operational Planning / 251 6.6 Conservation of Energy (Tellegen's Theorem) / 252 6.7 Existing Power Flow Techniques / 253 6.8 The Newton-Raphson Method Using the Augmented Jacobian Matrix / 254 6.9 Mathematical Overview / 257 6.10 AC System Control Modeling / 259 6.11 Local Voltage Control / 259 6.12 Modeling of Transmission Lines and Transformers / 259 6.13 HVDC links / 261 6.14 Brief Review of Jacobian Matrix Processing / 267 6.15 Example 6A: AC Power Flow Case / 269 6.16 The Decoupled Power Flow / 271 6.17 The Gauss-Seidel Method / 275 6.18 The "DC" or Linear Power Flow / 277 6.19 Unified Eliminated Variable Hvdc Method / 278 6.20 Transmission Losses / 284 6.21 Discussion of Reference Bus Penalty Factors / 288 6.22 Bus Penalty Factors Direct from the AC Power Flow / 289 PROBLEMS / 291 7 Power System Security 296 7.1 Introduction / 296 7.2 Factors Affecting Power System Security / 301 7.3 Contingency Analysis: Detection of Network Problems / 301 7.4 An Overview of Security Analysis / 306 7.5 Monitoring Power Transactions Using "Flowgates" / 313 7.6 Voltage Collapse / 315 APPENDIX 7A AC Power Flow Sample Cases / 327 APPENDIX 7B Calculation of Network Sensitivity Factors / 336 7B.1 Calculation of PTDF Factors / 336 7B.2 Calculation of LODF Factors / 339 7B.3 Compensated PTDF Factors / 343 Problems / 343 References / 349 8 Optimal Power Flow 350 8.1 Introduction / 350 8.2 The Economic Dispatch Formulation / 351 8.3 The Optimal Power Flow Calculation Combining Economic Dispatch and the Power Flow / 352 8.4 Optimal Power Flow Using the DC Power Flow / 354 8.5 Example 8A: Solution of the DC Power Flow OPF / 356 8.6 Example 8B: DCOPF with Transmission Line Limit Imposed / 361 8.7 Formal Solution of the DCOPF / 365 8.8 Adding Line Flow Constraints to the Linear Programming Solution / 365 8.9 Solution of the ACOPF / 368 8.10 Algorithms for Solution of the ACOPF / 369 8.11 Relationship Between LMP, Incremental Losses, and Line Flow Constraints / 376 8.12 Security-Constrained OPF / 382 APPENDIX 8A Interior Point Method / 391 APPENDIX 8B Data for the 12-Bus System / 393 APPENDIX 8C Line Flow Sensitivity Factors / 395 APPENDIX 8D Linear Sensitivity Analysis of the AC Power Flow / 397 PROBLEMS / 399 9 Introduction to State Estimation in Power Systems 403 9.1 Introduction / 403 9.2 Power System State Estimation / 404 9.3 Maximum Likelihood Weighted Least-Squares Estimation / 408 9.4 State Estimation of an Ac Network / 421 9.5 State Estimation by Orthogonal Decomposition / 428 9.6 An Introduction to Advanced Topics in State Estimation / 435 9.7 The Use of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUS) / 447 9.8 Application of Power Systems State Estimation / 451 9.9 Importance of Data Verification and Validation / 454 9.10 Power System Control Centers / 454 APPENDIX 9A Derivation of Least-Squares Equations / 456 9A.1 The Overdetermined Case (Nm > Ns) / 457 9A.2 The Fully Determined Case (Nm = Ns) / 462 9A.3 The Underdetermined Case (Nm PROBLEMS / 464 10 Control of Generation 468 10.1 Introduction / 468 10.2 Generator Model / 470 10.3 Load Model / 473 10.4 Prime-Mover Model / 475 10.5 Governor Model / 476 10.6 Tie-Line Model / 481 10.7 Generation Control / 485 PROBLEMS / 497 References / 500 11 Interchange, Pooling, Brokers, and Auctions 501 11.1 Introduction / 501 11.2 Interchange Contracts / 504 11.3 Energy Interchange between Utilities / 517 11.4 Interutility Economy Energy Evaluation / 521 11.5 Interchange Evaluation with Unit Commitment / 522 11.6 Multiple Utility Interchange Transactions--Wheeling / 523 11.7 Power Pools / 526 11.8 The Energy-Broker System / 529 11.9 Transmission Capability General Issues / 533 11.10 Available Transfer Capability and Flowgates / 535 11.11 Security Constrained Unit Commitment (SCUC) / 550 11.12 Auction Emulation using Network LP / 555 11.13 Sealed Bid Discrete Auctions / 555 PROBLEMS / 560 12 Short-Term Demand Forecasting 566 12.1 Perspective / 566 12.2 Analytic Methods / 569 12.3 Demand Models / 571 12.4 Commodity Price Forecasting / 572 12.5 Forecasting Errors / 573 12.6 System Identification / 573 12.7 Econometric Models / 574 12.8 Time Series / 578 12.9 Time Series Model Development / 585 12.10 Artificial Neural Networks / 603 12.11 Model Integration / 614 12.12 Demand Prediction / 614 12.13 Conclusion / 616 PROBLEMS / 617 Index 620