Handbook of Geochemistry

1 The Discovery of the Chemical Elements. The History of Geochemistry. Definitions of Geochemistry.- I. The Discovery of the Chemical Elements.- II. The History of Geochemistry.- III. Definitions of Geochemistry.- References.- 2 Crystal Chemistry.- I. The Geometrical Framework of Crystal Structures.- a) The Lattice Constants of the Unit Cell and the Space Group.- b) The Content of the Unit Cell.- c) The Positions of the Atoms and their Parameters.- II. Some Geometrical Problems of Crystal Structures Not Related to Space Group Symmetry.- III. The Effective Radii of Atoms and Ions.- IV. The Chemical Bonds in Crystals.- a) Covalent Bond.- b) Metallic Bond.- c) Ionic Bond.- d) Van der Waals' Bond.- e) Crystal Field- and Ligand Field-Theory.- f) Semiconductors.- g) Hydrogen Bond.- V. The Theoretical Treatment of Ionic Crystals.- VI. Polymorphism.- VII. Isomorphism.- VIII. Crystal Chemistry of Real Crystals.- a) Effects of the Heat Content of Crystals.- b) Solid Solutions (Mixed Crystals).- IX. Diffusion and Reactions in the Solid State.- References.- 3 Thermodynamics Used in Geochemistry.- I. Perfect Gases and Perfect Solutions.- II. The Equilibrium Constant.- III. Fugacity and Activity.- IV. The Laws of Thermodynamics.- a) Internal Energy.- b) The First Law.- c) Enthalpy.- d) Heat Capacity.- e) Entropy.- f) The Second Law.- g) The Third Law.- V. Free Energy.- VI. Electrode Potentials.- VII. Solutions.- VIII. The Phase Rule.- Symbols.- References.- 4 Meteorite Composition.- I. Introduction.- II. Meteorite Classification.- a) Classification of Stone Meteorites.- 1. Classification of Achondrites.- 2. Classification of Chondrites.- b) Classification of Stony-Iron Meteorites.- c) Classification of Iron Meteorites.- III. Chemical Composition of Meteorites.- a) Chemical Composition of Stone Meteorites.- b) Chemical Composition of Stony-Iron Meteorites.- c) Chemical Composition of Iron Meteorites.- IV. Mineralogical Composition of Meteorites.- References.- 5 Cosmic Abundances.- I. Introduction.- II. Cosmic Abundances.- III. The Bulk Composition of the Earth.- IV. Other Applications of Cosmic Abundances.- References.- 6 Geophysical Aspects of Structure and Composition of the Earth and the Earth Crust.- Principal Subdivision of the Earth's Interior.- I. Inferences from Earthquakes and Earth Tides.- a) Principles of Scismic Wave Propagation.- b) The Jeffreys-Bullen Curves.- c) Interpretation of Travel-Time Curves.- d) Scismic Velocities in the Crust.- e) Scismic Velocities in Mantle and Core.- f) Travel Time and Amplitude Anomalies.- g) Inferences from free Oscillation and Earth Tides.- II. Density, Elasticity, Viscosity.- a) Theoretical Density-Scismic Velocity Relations.- b) Density Models for Earth's Interior.- c) Gravity and Pressure within the Earth.- d) Elastic Constants.- e) Zero-Pressure Properties of the Mantle.- f) Viscous Properties.- g) Strain Energy Dissipation.- III. Gravity and Earth's Figure.- a) Dimensions and Flattening of the Earth.- b) Low-Order Harmonics of the Geoid.- c) Gravity Anomalies.- d) Isostasy.- IV. Geomagnetism.- a) Basic Concepts.- b) The Dipole Field.- c) Non-Dipole Field and Secular Variations.- d) Magnetic Anomalies.- e) Rock Magnetism.- f) Paleomagnetism.- g) Electromagnetic Induction within the Earth.- h) Induction Anomalies.- V. The Thermal State.- a) Terrestrial Heat Flow and Volcanism.- b) Non-Radiogenic Heat.- c) Radiogenic Heat.- d) Heat Transfer.- e) Basic Equation of Heat Diffusion.- f) Thermal Balance and Temperature Distribution.- g) Melting Curves.- h) Thermal Expansion and Specific Heat.- i) Thermal Convection.- VI. Conclusions.- Symbols.- References.- 7 Composition and Abundance of Common Igeneous Rocks.- I. Nomenclature of Igneous (Magmatic) Rocks.- II. Chemical Composition of Common Igneous Rocks.- III. Rock Nomenclature and Current Trends in Igneous Petrology.- IV. Abundance of Common Intrusive Rocks.- V. Abundance of Common Volcanic Rocks.- VI. Average Composition of the Upper Continental Earth's Crust.- References.- 8 Composition and Abundance of Common Sedimentary Rocks.- I. Nomenclature of Sedimentary Rocks.- a) Clastic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks.- 1. Pyroclastic Deposits - Volcanic Tuffs.- b) Chemical and Biogenic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks.- c) Clastic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks with Specific Chemical Constituents or Organic Residues.- II. Average Composition of Common Sedimentary Rocks.- III. Rock Nomenclature and Current Trends in Sedimentary Petrology.- IV. Abundance of Common Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks.- References.- 9 Composition and Abundance of Common Metamorphic Rock Types.- I. General Trends in Metamorphism.- II. Isochemical Series of Metamorphism.- a) Retrogressive Metamorphism.- III. Allochemical Series of Metamorphism (Metasomatism).- IV. Contact Metamorphism.- a) Spotted Slates.- b) Spotted Mica-schists.- c) Hornfels.- V. Migmatites, Anatexis, Granitization.- References.- 10 The Oceans, Streams, and Atmosphere.- I. The Oceans.- a) General Features of the Ocean Basin.- b) Salinity and Temperature of Ocean Water.- c) Water Types and Oceanic Mixing.- d) Composition of Sea Water.- e) Distribution of Elements in Sea Water.- II. Streams.- a) Discharge, Dissolved Load and Sediment Load.- b) Composition of Streams.- III. The Atmosphere.- a) The Structure of the Atmosphere.- b) Composition of the Atmosphere.- c) Atmospheric Precipitation.- References.- 11 Evaluation of Data.- I. Analytical Errors and Related Topics in Geochemistry.- a) Precision.- b) Accuracy.- c) Sensitivity.- II. Statistical Procedures.- a) Introduction.- 1. Intention.- 2. General Definitions.- 3. Definitions of Moments.- b) Propagation of Error.- c) Rules for Rounding Sample Statistics.- d) Summary Statistics - Single Variable.- 1. Central Measures.- 2. Variance, s2 or V.- 3. Moments, Semi-Invariants.- 4. Standardized Variable.- e) Summary Statistics - Two or More Variables.- 1. Correlation Coefficient, Covariance.- 2. Sample and Dispersion Matrices.- 3. Closed Array Data.- 4. Ratio Correlation.- f) Properties of Some Probability Density Functions.- 1. Normal (Gauss-Laplace) Law.- 2. Lognormal (Galton) Law.- 3. Binomial Law.- 4. Poisson Law.- g) Assumption of Randomness and Normality.- 1. General.- 2. Hypothesis that a Sample has a Normally Distributed Parent Population.- h) Estimation.- 1. Confidence Interval for Mean ?.- 2. Confidence Interval for Sum (or Difference) of Means ?1 and ?2.- 3. Confidence Interval for Variance ?2.- 4. Confidence Interval for Correlation Coefficient r.- 5. Confidence Interval for Mean of Binomial Distribution.- i) Tests of Hypothesis.- 1. General.- 2. Hypothesis that ? is Equal to Some Numerical Value (Population Variance Unknown).- 3. Hypothesis that ?2 is Equal to Some Numerical Value.- 4. Hypothesis that Two Samples have the Same Population Variance.- 5. Hypothesis that Two Samples have the Same Population Mean.- 6. Hypothesis that Several Samples have the Same Population Variance (BAR-LETT'S Test).- 7. Hypothesis that the Population Correlation Coefficient ? is Equal to Some Numerical Value.- 8. Hypothesis that a Sample of Enumeration Data is from a Binomial Population of Probability ?0.- k) Analysis of Variance.- 1. General.- 2. Single Factor with Replication.- 3. Two Factor Crossed with Replication.- 4. Two Factor Nested, with Replication.- l) Linear Regression.- 1. General.- 2. Analysis of Regression (Test of Independence of Two Variables).- 3. Analysis of Regression (Test of Linearity).- III. Interpretation of Chemical Analysis of Silicates.- a) Calculation of Atomic Proportion.- b) Significance of Oxygen.- c) Interpretation of the Analysis of a Complex Silicate.- d) Calculation of the Igneous Norm of a Rock.- e) Metamorphic and Plutonic Norm Calculation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Minerals of the Mesonorm.- 3. Principles of Calculation.- 4. Calculation Procedure (Mesonorm).- 5. Epinorm.- Appendix 1. Areas of the Normal Curve (from DIXON and MASSEY, 1951).- 2. Values of t (from DIXON and MASSEY, 1951).- 3. Percentiles of the x2 Distribution (from DIXON and MASSEY, 1951).- 4. (a) F Distribution, Upper 5% Points, (b) F Distribution, Upper 1% Points (from DIXON and MASSEY, 1951).- 5. Conversion Tables, Weight Per Cent to Gram-Atoms × 104.- References.- 12 Tables.- 1. Physical Constants.- 2. Periodic System.- 3. Table of Relative Atomic Weights.- 4. Table of Isotopic Abundance and Relative Atomic Weights.- 5. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Elements.- 6. Electronic Configuration of the Elements in Their Normal States.- 7. The Effective Radii of Atoms.- 8. Table of the Effective Radii of Ions.- 9. Ionization Potentials for Elements in the Atomic State.- 10. Electronegativity Values.- 11. Molar Volumes and Densities of Minerals.- 12. The Theoretical Composition of Some Silicate Minerals in Cation Percentage.- 13. The Theoretical Composition of Some Silicate Minerals in Weight Percentage.- 14. The Theoretical Composition of Some Non-silicate Minerals in Weight Percentage.- 15. The Theoretical Composition of Some Ore Minerals in Weight Percentage.- 16. Astronomical Constants.- 17. Solar Dimensions.- 18. Dimensions of the Planets and the Moon.- 19. Earth's Dimensions.- 20. Earth's Interior, Masses and Dimensions of the Principle Subdivisions.- 21. The Surface Areas of the Earth.- 22. Geological Time-scales.- 23. Measures, Units and Conversion Factors.- References.- Author Index.