Wind Energy Essentials

Preface xiii Foreword xv About the Authors xvii Dedication and Acknowledgments xix 1 Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society 1 1.1 What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"? 1 1.2 Early Wind Power Innovation and Discovery 2 1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society 20 1.4 History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production 28 1.5 Renewables and Electrification in Third World Countries 32 1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water, and Electricity 32 References 32 2 The Basics of Electricity 34 2.1 Units of Electrical Measurement 34 2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical Equipment 36 2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric Industry 39 2.4 Frequently Asked Questions 40 Reference 47 3 Overview of Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity 48 3.1 Defining Renewable Energy 48 3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy 51 3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy in the United States 53 3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity Production in the United States 53 3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the United States 58 3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy 59 3.7 Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States 60 3.8 Wind Resources in the United States 62 3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric Generation in the United States 67 References 70 4 Conversion of Power in the Wind to Electricity 71 4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines 71 4.2 Atmospheric Science 85 4.3 Wind Statistics 94 5 The Wind Energy Development Process 100 5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project 100 5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy Project 103 5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" 104 5.4 Coordination of the Wind Energy Project Development Process 105 5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind Energy Project 106 5.6 Major Steps in the Early Stage Wind Project Development Process 107 5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project Development 111 5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project 113 5.9 Conclusions 114 References 114 6 Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy 115 6.1 The Need to Understand and Respond 115 6.2 Community Relationships and Public Outreach 117 6.3 General Categorization of Issues 119 Reference 121 7 Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges 122 7.1 Overview of Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Industry 122 7.2 State and Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife 123 7.3 USFWS Guidelines for Wind Development 124 7.4 Best Management Practices for Wind Energy Development Included as Chapter 7 of the USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines 125 7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind Turbine Blades 128 7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian Collisions 131 7.7 Avian Species of Concern 133 7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind Energy Development 136 7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects of Wind Development on Birds and Other Wildlife 140 7.10 Conclusions 141 References 141 8 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on Humans: Public Health Issues 145 8.1 Overview of Environmental and Ecological Impacts on Humans 145 8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms 146 8.3 Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines 147 8.4 Potential Health Effects of Audible or Subaudible Noise from Wind Turbines 149 8.5 Noise Ordinances 150 8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise 151 8.7 Siting Procedures for Noise Mitigation 152 8.8 Shadow Flicker 153 8.9 Mitigation of Shadow Flicker 154 8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields 155 8.11 Mitigating EMF Exposure from Wind Projects 156 8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 156 8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues 157 8.14 Conclusions 158 References 158 9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on Humans: Public and Workforce Safety Issues 160 9.1 Overview of Workforce and Public Safety Issues 160 9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are Involved (in any Industry) 161 9.3 Ice Shedding 161 9.4 Mitigating Ice Shedding Issues 163 9.5 Blade Throw 163 9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues 164 9.7 Risk of Fire 164 9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire 165 9.9 Lightning 165 9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Hail 167 9.11 The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic 167 9.12 Planning for and Addressing Transportation Issues 168 9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety: Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines 171 9.14 Other Wind Energy Industry Workforce Safety Issues 171 9.15 Conclusions 174 References 174 10 Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications 175 10.1 Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation 175 10.2 Regulatory Requirements and FAA Permitting Process 176 10.3 FAA Screening Tools 177 10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions 181 10.5 Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers 184 10.6 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar 185 10.7 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar 189 10.8 Potential Impact of Wind Turbines on Telecommunications 190 References 192 11 Other Environmental Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration 194 11.1 Aesthetic Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed 194 11.2 Mitigating Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 202 11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural Resources 202 11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing Land Use 204 11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources 213 11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property 215 11.7 Best Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines), 216 References, 217 12 Impact of Wind Energy on the Electric Grid 218 12.1 Overview of Wind Integration Issues, 218 12.2 The Electric Grid, 219 12.3 Wind Penetration, 221 12.4 Issues that Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy, 222 12.5 Capability of Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection, 230 12.6 Conclusions, 232 References, 233 13 N on Wind Renewable Energy Sources Used To Meet Electricity Needs 234 13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered 234 13.2 Renewable Energy Generation Resources in the United States 235 13.3 Hydroelectric Generation 235 13.4 Solar Energy 238 13.5 Biomass Energy 243 13.6 Municipal Solid Waste 245 13.7 Landfill Gas 246 13.8 Geothermal Energy 248 13.9 Energy from the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power 250 13.10 Hydrogen 253 References 255 14 Nonrenewable Energy Sources Used to Meet Electricity Needs 256 14.1 Comparing Sources of Electric Generation 256 14.2 Processes or Technologies Used to Produce Electricity 257 14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation Technologies 259 14.4 Generation Resources in the United States 261 14.5 Nuclear Energy 261 14.6 Coal-Fired Generation 266 14.7 Natural Gas-Fired Generation 270 14.8 Oil-Fired Generation 273 14.9 Methane Hydrates 274 References 276 15 Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and "Doing Without" 277 15.1 Overview 277 15.2 Concepts 278 15.3 Consumer Efficiency and DSM 283 15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency 288 15.5 Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions 292 15.6 Positive Attributes of Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 15.7 Limits to Electric Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 References 297 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 298 16.1 Overview 298 16.2 The Greenhouse Effect 298 16.3 Fossil Fuels and their Contribution to GHG Levels 301 16.4 International Political and Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions 306 16.5 Public Opinion and Policy 306 16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 310 16.7 Methods and Costs of Mitigation 312 16.8 Conclusions 313 References 313 17 Siting and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects 315 17.1 Federal Law, Regulations, and Permitting Requirements 315 17.2 Federal Permits, Approvals, or Consultations 320 17.3 State and Local Permitting 322 17.4 Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines 324 17.5 Examples of Renewable Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 325 17.6 Examples of Fossil-Fueled or Nuclear Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 326 17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 329 17.8 Checklist for Governmental Approvals 330 References 331 18 Economics of Electricity Generation 333 18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation 333 18.2 Electrical Demand versus Supply 334 18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity/Energy Value 335 18.4 Effect of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price 337 18.5 Capacity Value of Electric Generation 339 18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on the Economics of Electricity Generation 340 18.7 Effect of Expected Useful Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity Generation 342 18.8 Book Depreciation versus Depreciation for Tax Purposes 343 18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes 346 18.10 Federal Support and Subsidies 347 18.11 Environmental Externalities 352 18.12 Using Levelized Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies 353 18.13 Conclusions 355 References 356 19 Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and Other Sources of Electric Generation 357 19.1 Introduction 357 19.2 Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects 357 19.3 Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects 360 19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects 363 19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants 364 19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation Projects 369 19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy Economy" 370 19.8 Conclusions 372 References 372 20 Environmental Impacts and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy 374 20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas in the United States 374 20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. Onshore Wind 378 20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy 379 20.4 Potential Impact of Hurricanes 381 References 381 21 State and National Energy Policies 383 21.1 Introduction 383 21.2 History of US Energy Policy 384 21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy 387 21.4 Energy Imports 388 21.5 Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals 391 21.6 Federal Tax Incentives 393 21.7 Public Benefit Funds 396 21.8 Feed?in Tariffs 397 21.9 Net Metering 398 21.10 Research and Development 399 21.11 Increasing Restrictions on Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Emissions 400 21.12 Carbon Taxes/Cap-and-Trade Programs 402 21.13 Conclusions 403 References 404 22 Global Wind Energy Policy and Development 405 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2 Renewable Energy Development--A Global Perspective 405 22.3 The Wind Energy Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market 407 22.4 Wind Energy by Region 416 22.5 Conclusions 426 References 427 23 Wind Energy Workforce, Education, and Jobs 429 23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 429 23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 429 23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 438 23.4 Types of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 440 References 444 24 The Future of Electric Energy 446 24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels 446 24.2 Eighty Percent Renewables by 2050 449 24.3 Wind Energy Research and Development 450 24.4 Smart Grid/Infrastructure Updates 450 24.5 The Consumer of the Future/Consumer Applications 452 24.6 Energy Storage 452 24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports 453 24.8 Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water 454 24.9 Electrification in Third?]World Countries 455 References 455 Appendix A Wind Energy Reference Tables for Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Energy Equivalents 457 Appendix B List of Acronyms 464 Appendix C Glossary 468 Index 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