Advanced Bioelectronics Materials

Preface xv Part 1: Recent Advances in Bioelectronics 1 1 Micro- and Nanoelectrodes in Protein-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Nanomedicine and Other Applications 3 Niina J. Ronkainen 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Microelectrodes 7 1.2.1 Electrochemistry and Advantages of Microelectrodes 7 1.2.2 Applications, Cleaning, and Performance of Microelectrodes 16 1.3 Nanoelectrodes 18 1.3.1 Electrochemistry and Advantages of Nanoelectrodes 21 1.3.2 Applications and Performance of Nanoelectrodes 23 1.4 Integration of the Electronic Transducer, Electrode, and Biological Recognition Components (such as Enzymes) in Nanoscale-Sized Biosensors and Their Clinical Applications 26 1.5 Conclusion 27 Acknowledgment 28 References 28 2 Radio-Frequency Biosensors for Label-Free Detection of Biomolecular Binding Systems 35 Hee-Jo Lee1, Sang-Gyu Kim, and Jong-Gwan Yook 2.1 Overview 35 2.2 Introduction 36 2.3 Carbon Nanotube-Based RF Biosensor 37 2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube 37 2.3.2 Fabrications of Interdigital Capacitors with Carbon Nanotube 38 2.3.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotube 39 2.3.4 Measurement and Results 40 2.4 Resonator-Based RF Biosensor 40 2.4.1 Resonator 40 2.4.2 Sample Preparation and Measurement 42 2.4.3 Functionalization of Resonator 42 2.5 Active System-Based RF Biosensor 45 2.5.1 Principle and Configuration of System 45 2.5.2 Fabrication of RF Active System with Resonator 46 2.5.2.1 Functionalization of Resonator 46 2.5.3 Measurement and Result 47 2.6 Conclusions 49 Abbreviations 51 References 52 3 Affinity Biosensing: Recent Advances in Surface Plasmon Resonance for Molecular Diagnostics 55 S. Scarano, S. Mariani, and M. Minunni 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Artists of the Biorecognition: New Natural and Synthetic Receptors as Sensing Elements 58 3.2.1 Antibodies and Their Mimetics 58 3.2.2 Nucleic Acids and Analogues 62 3.2.3 Living Cells 63 3.3 Recent Trends in Bioreceptors Immobilization 65 3.4 Trends for Improvements of Analytical Performances in Molecular Diagnostics 69 3.4.1 Coupling Nanotechnology to Biosensing 70 3.4.2 Microfluidics and Microsystems 76 3.4.3 Hyphenation 78 3.5 Conclusions 78 References 80 4 Electropolymerized Materials for Biosensors 89 Gennady Evtugyn, Anna Porfi reva and Tibor Hianik 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Electropolymerized Materials Used in Biosensor Assembly 93 4.2.1 General Characteristic of Electropolymerization Techniques 93 4.2.2 Instrumentation Tools for Monitoring of the Redox-Active Polymers in the Biosensor Assembly 97 4.2.3 Redox-Active Polymers Applied in Biosensor Assembly 99 4.3 Enzyme Sensors 107 4.3.1 PANI-Based Enzyme Sensors 107 4.3.2 PPY and Polythiophene-Based Enzyme Sensors 117 4.3.3 Enzyme Sensors Based on Other Redox-Active Polymers Obtained by Electropolymerization 127 4.3.4 Enzyme Sensors Based on Other Polymers Bearing Redox Groups 135 4.4 Immunosensors Based on Redox-Active Polymers 137 4.5 DNA Sensors Based on Redox-Active Polymers 149 4.5.1 PANI-based DNA Sensors and Aptasensors 149 4.5.2 PPY-Based DNA Sensors 153 4.5.3 Thiophene Derivatives in the DNA Sensors 157 4.5.4 DNA Sensors Based on Polyphenazines and Other Redox-Active Polymers 159 4.6 Conclusion 162 Acknowledgments 163 References 163 Part 2 Advanced Nanostructures in Biosensing 187 5 Graphene-Based Electrochemical Platform for Biosensor Applications 189 Yusoff Norazriena, Alagarsamy Pandikumar, Huang Nay Ming, and Lim Hong Ngee2,3 5.1 Introduction 189 5.2 Graphene 192 5.3 Synthetic Methods for Graphene 195 5.4 Properties of Graphene 197 5.5 Multi-functional Applications of Graphene 199 5.6 Electrochemical Sensor 200 Graphene as Promising Materials for Electrochemical Biosensors 201 5.6.1 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for Glucose Sensors 201 5.6.2 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for NADH Sensors 202 5.6.3 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for NO Sensors 204 5.6.4 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for H2O 206 5.7 Conclusion and Future Outlooks 207 References 208 6 Fluorescent Carbon Dots for Bioimaging 215 Suresh Kumar Kailasa, Vaibhavkumar N. Mehta1, Nazim Hasan and Hui-Fen Wu 6.1 Introduction 215 6.2 CDs as Fluorescent Probes for Imaging of Biomolecules and Cells 216 6.3 Conclusions and Perspectives 224 References 224 7 Enzyme Sensors Based on Nanostructured Materials 229 Nada F. Atta, Shimaa M. Ali, and Ahmed Galal 7.1 Biosensors and Nanotechnology 229 7.2 Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 230 7.2.1 Glucose Biosensors 233 7.2.2 Cholesterol Biosensors 237 7.2.3 Tyrosinase Biosensors 240 7.2.4 Urease Biosensors 243 7.2.5 Acetylcholinesterase Biosensors 244 7.2.6 Horseradish Peroxidase Biosensors 246 7.2.7 DNA Biosensors 248 7.3 Biosensors Based on Magnetic Nanoparticles 252 7.4 Biosensors Based on Quantum Dots 260 7.5 Conclusion 267 References 268 8 Biosensor Based on Chitosan Nanocomposite 277 Baoqiang Li, Yinfeng Cheng, Feng Xu, Lei Wang, Daqing Wei, Dechang Jia, Yujie Feng, and Yu Zhou 8.1 Introduction 278 8.2 Chitosan and Chitosan Nanomaterials 278 8.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Chitosan 279 8.2.2 Biocompatibility of Chitosan 280 8.2.3 Chitosan Nanomaterials 281 8.2.3.1 Blending 281 8.2.3.2 In Situ Hybridization 282 8.2.3.3 Chemical Grafting 285 8.3 Application of Chitosan Nanocomposite in Biosensor 285 8.3.1 Biosensor Configurations and Bioreceptor Immobilization 285 8.3.2 Biosensor Based on Chitosan Nanocomposite 287 8.3.2.1 Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanomaterials?Chitosan Nanocomposite 287 8.3.2.2 Biosensors Based on Metal and Metal Oxide?Chitosan Nanocomposite 290 8.3.2.3 Biosensors Based on Quantum Dots Chitosan Nanocomposite 293 8.3.2.4 Biosensors Based on IonicLiquid Chitosan Nanocomposite 293 8.4 Emerging Biosensor and Future Perspectives 294 Acknowledgments 298 References 298 Part 3 Systematic Bioelectronic Strategies 309 9 Bilayer Lipid Membrane Constructs: A Strategic Technology Evaluation Approach 311 Christina G. Siontorou 9.1 The Lipid Bilayer Concept and the Membrane Platform 312 9.2 Strategic Technology Evaluation: The Approach 318 9.3 The Dimensions of the Membrane-Based Technology 319 9.4 Technology Dimension 1: Fabrication 322 9.4.1 Suspended Lipid Platforms 322 9.4.2 Supported Lipid Platforms 327 9.4.3 Micro- and Nano-Fabricated Lipid Platforms 331 9.5 Technology Dimension 2: Membrane Modelling 333 9.6 Technology Dimension 3: Artificial Chemoreception 336 9.7 Technology Evaluation 337 9.8 Concluding Remarks 339 Abbreviations 340 References 340 10 Carbon and Its Hybrid Composites as Advanced Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 355 S. T. Senthilkumar, K. Vijaya Sankar, J. S. Melo, A. Gedanken and R. Kalai Selvan 10.1 Introduction 356 10.1.1 Background 356 10.2 Principle of Supercapacitor 358 10.2.1 Basics of Supercapacitor 358 10.2.2 Charge Storage Mechanism of SC 360 10.2.2.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC) 360 10.2.2.2 Pseudocapacitors 361 10.2.2.3 Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 364 10.3 Activated Carbon and Their Composites 366 10.4 Carbon Aerogels and Their Composite Materials 368 10.5 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Their Composite Materials 371 10.6 Two-Dimensional Graphene 374 10.6.1 Electrochemical Performance of Graphene 375 10.6.2 Graphene Composites 376 10.6.2.1 Binary Composites 376 10.6.2.2 Ternary Hybrid Electrode 378 10.6.3 Doping of Graphene with Heteroatom 380 10.7 Conclusion and Outlook 381 Acknowledgements 382 References 382 11 Recent Advances of Biosensors in Food Detection Including Genetically Modified Organisms in Food 395 T. Varzakas, Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, and Dimitrios P. Nikolelis 11.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 396 11.2 DNA Biosensors for Detection of GMOs Nanotechnology 400 11.3 Aptamers 411 11.4 Voltammetric Biosensors 412 11.5 Amperometric Biosensors 413 11.6 Optical Biosensors 414 11.7 Magnetoelastic Biosensors 415 11.8 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Biosensors for Odor Detection 415 11.9 Quorum Sensing and Toxoflavin Detection 416 11.10 Xanthine Biosensors 417 11.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects 418 Acknowledgments 419 References 419 12 Numerical Modeling and Calculation of Sensing Parameters of DNA Sensors 429 Hediyeh Karimi, Farzaneh Sabbagh, Rasoul Rahmani, and M. T. Ahamdi 12.1 Introduction to Graphene 430 12.1.1 Electronic Structure of Graphene 431 12.1.2 Graphene as a Sensing Element 431 12.1.3 DNA Molecules 432 12.1.4 DNA Hybridization 432 12.1.5 Graphene-Based Field Effect Transistors 434 12.1.6 DNA Sensor Structure 435 12.1.7 Sensing Mechanism 436 12.2 Numerical Modeling 437 12.2.1 12.2.2 Modeling of the Sensing Parameter (Conductance) Current Voltage (Id?Vg) Characteristics 437 Modeling 440 12.2.3 Proposed Alpha Model 441 12.2.4 Comparison of the Proposed NumericalModel with Experiment 444 References 447 13 Carbon Nanotubes and Cellulose Acetate Composite for Biomolecular Sensing 453 Padmaker Pandey, Anamika Pandey, O. P. Pandey and N. K. Shukla 13.1 Introduction 453 13.2 Background of the Work 456 13.3 Materials and Methodology 459 13.3.1 Preparation of Membranes 459 13.3.2 Immobilisation of Enzyme 460 13.3.3 Assay for Measurement of Enzymatic Reaction 460 13.4 Characterisation of Membranes 460 13.4.1 Optical Microscope Characterisation 460 13.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscope Characterisation 462 13.5 pH Measurements Using Different Membranes 462 13.5.1 For Un-immobilised Membranes 462 13.5.2 For Immobilised Membranes 462 13.6 Conclusion 464 Reference 465 14 Review of the Green Synthesis of Metal/Graphene Composites for Energy Conversion, Sensor, Environmental, and Bioelectronic Applications 467 Shude Liu, K.S. Hui, and K.N. Hui 14.1 Introduction 468 14.2 Metal/Graphene Composites 468 14.3 Synthesis Routes of Graphene 469 14.3.1 CVD Synthesis of Graphene 469 14.3.2 Liquid-Phase Production of Graphene 473 14.3.3 Epitaxial Growth of Graphene 476 14.4 Green Synthesis Route of Metal/Graphene Composites 478 14.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Metal/Graphene Composites 479 14.4.2 Non-toxic Reducing Agent 482 14.4.3 In Situ Sonication Method 484 14.4.4 Photocatalytic Reduction Method 486 14.5 Green Application of Metal/Graphene and Doped Graphene Composites 487 14.5.1 Energy Storage and Conversion Device 487 14.5.2 Electrochemical Sensors 490 14.5.3 Wastewater Treatment 491 14.5.4 Bioelectronics 492 14.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective 496 Acknowledgments 497 References 497