Membrane Processing

Preface to the Technical Series xiii Preface xv Contributors xvii 1 Development of Membrane Processes 1 K. Smith 1.1 Historical background 1 1.2 Basic principles of membrane separations 3 1.3 Types of membrane separations 8 1.4 Theory of membrane transport 9 1.5 Factors affecting membrane separations 11 1.6 General characteristics of membrane processes 13 1.7 Conclusion and future development 15 Suggested literature 15 2 Principles of Membrane Filtration 17 A. Hausmann, M.C. Duke and T. Demmer 2.1 Introduction and definitions 17 2.2 Membrane properties based on materials 24 2.3 Flux behaviour in pressure-driven membrane operations 29 2.4 Effects of feed characteristics and operating parameter on separation efficiency 37 2.5 Cross-flow systems 43 2.6 Recent membrane processes following different operating principles 44 2.7 Conclusions 47 References 47 3 Commercial Membrane Technology 52 K. Smith 3.1 Introduction: polymers used in membrane manufacture 52 3.2 Other materials used for membranes 56 3.3 Membrane configuration 58 3.4 Modes of operation 65 3.5 Conclusion and future developments 71 Suggested literature 71 4 Membrane Fouling, Cleaning and Disinfection 73 L.L.A. Koh, M. Ashokkumar and S.E. Kentish 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Flux reduction 73 4.3 Membrane cleaning and disinfection 84 4.4 Recent developments 98 4.5 Conclusions 99 4.6 Nomenclature 100 References 102 5 General Application for the Treatment of Effluent and Reuse of Wastewater 107 N.A. Milne and S.R. Gray 5.1 General wastewater quality issues 107 5.2 General wastewater treatment 108 5.3 Water reuse 117 5.4 Conclusions and future applications 123 References 124 6 Liquid Milk Processing 128 G. Gesan-Guiziou 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 On-farm concentration of milk 128 6.3 Protein standardisation by ultrafiltration 130 6.4 Removal of bacteria by microfiltration 134 6.5 Fractionation of fat 138 6.6 Removal of somatic cells by microfiltration 139 6.7 Conclusions and future trends 140 References 140 7 Membrane Processing of Fermented Milks 143 B. Ozer and A.Y. Tamime 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 Microflora of the starter cultures 144 7.3 Patterns of production and consumption 145 7.4 Manufacturing practice of gel-type (set and stirred) products 145 7.5 Manufacturing practice of concentrated products 152 7.6 Quality control 158 7.7 Conclusion 169 References 170 8 Cheese 176 V.V. Mistry 8.1 Background 176 8.2 Properties of membrane processed concentrates 177 8.3 Applications of ultrafiltration in cheesemaking 178 8.4 Cheese quality 185 8.5 Applications of microfiltration in cheesemaking 186 8.6 Nanofiltration 188 8.7 Milk protein concentrates 189 8.8 Future potential 189 References 190 9 Whey Processing 193 L. Ramchandran and T. Vasiljevic 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Whey: components, their functionality and uses 193 9.3 Problems of traditional whey processing 195 9.4 Membranes in whey processing 196 9.5 Conclusions 204 References 205 10 Concentrated Milk and Powders 208 G. Gesan-Guiziou 10.1 Introduction 208 10.2 Concentrated milks and powders 208 10.3 Milk protein concentrates 218 10.4 Conclusion and future trends 222 References 222 11 Further Applications of Membrane Filtration in Dairy Processing 225 J.A. O'Mahony and J.J. Tuohy 11.1 Introduction 225 11.2 Fractionation of milk proteins using membranes 226 11.3 Fractionation of milk fat using membranes 240 11.4 Fractionation of milk carbohydrates using membranes 245 11.5 Fractionation of milk salts using membranes 248 11.6 Conclusions and future trends 251 References 253 12 Fruit Juices 262 A. Cassano 12.1 Introduction 262 12.2 Fruit juice clarification by microfiltration and ultrafiltration 265 12.3 Membrane fouling and membrane cleaning 266 12.4 Performance of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes 269 12.5 Process configurations 273 12.6 Quality of the clarified juices 274 12.7 Integrated processes 276 12.8 Conclusions and future development 277 References 277 13 Beer and Cider 281 J. Bergin and J.J. Tuohy 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Beer brewing process 282 13.3 Cidermaking process 292 13.4 Membrane applications in the brewing process 294 13.5 Membrane applications in cidermaking 300 13.6 Membrane applications common to brewing and cidermaking 302 13.7 Future opportunities 311 References 313 14 Wine 316 K. Grainger 14.1 Background 316 14.2 Clarification and filtration methods 318 14.3 Membrane fouling 322 14.4 Must correction, wine correction and alcohol reduction using membrane technologies 322 14.5 Wine stabilisation and pH adjustment 327 14.6 Conclusions and future developments 328 References 330 15 Application of Membrane Technology in Vinegar 334 F. Lopez 15.1 Introduction 334 15.2 Process of vinegar making 335 15.3 Membrane technology in the production of vinegar 336 15.4 Conclusions 338 References 338 Index 339