Essential Oil Extraction, Scalability Concerns, and Process Intensification

Contents
About the Editors xi
List of Contributors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Chapter 1 Essential Oil's Current Market Value and Demand 1
Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Olalere Olusegun Abayomi ,
Paul Musonge , Anthony Okoji and Chiazor Faustina Jisieike
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Essential Oil's Market Size and Predictions 1
1.3 Essential Oil Market Focus and International
Oil Players 3
1.3.1 Method of Extraction Insights 3
1.4 Current Essential Oil Market Dynamics
and Challenges 4
1.5 Consumer Demand, Quality Measure, and
Regulatory Bodies in Essential Oil Market 4
1.5.1 Consumer Health and Wellness 4
1.5.2 Quality Measure in Essential Oil Market 5
1.5.3 Regulatory Hurdles 5
1.6 Conclusion 6
References 6
Chapter 2 Azeotropic Distillation: Unlocking the Potential of Essential
Oil Extraction 8
Naadhira Seedat , Vizelle Naidoo and Rishen Roopchund
2.1 Introduction 8
2.1.1 Definition and Significance of Azeotropic
Distillation in Essential Oil Extraction 8
2.2 Brief Overview of Historical Backgrounds 9
2.3 Historical Evolution of Essential Oil Extraction 10
2.3.1 Ancient Methods of Essential Oil Extraction 10
2.3.2 Transition to More Advanced Distillation
Techniques 10
2.3.3 Traditional Azeotropic Distillation
Techniques 12
2.4 Case Studies Highlighting the Application of
Hybrid Techniques 27
2.4.1 Efficiency, Yield, and Quality Considerations 27
2.4.2 Environmental and Economic Implications 28
2.5 Future Prospects and Innovations 32
2.5.1 Ongoing Research and Development in
Azeotropic Distillation 32
2.5.2 Potential Advancements and Improvements 32
2.5.3 The Role of Azeotropic Distillation in the
Future of Essential Oil Extraction 33
2.6 Conclusion 34
References 35
Chapter 3 Soxhlet Solvent Extraction of Phytoconstituents 40
Samuel Olugbenga Olunusi and Nor Hanuni Ramli
3.1 Introduction 40
3.1.1 Background and Significance 40
3.2 Objectives of the Chapter 41
3.3 Overview of Essential Oils 41
3.4 Brief History of SE 42
3.5 Principles of SE 42
3.5.1 Theory of SE 42
3.5.2 Working Principle 42
3.6 Advantages and Limitations 44
3.7 Essential Oil Extraction Process 45
3.8 Selection of Plant Material 45
3.9 Pretreatment of Raw Materials 45
3.10 Selection of Solvents 46
3.11 Detailed Extraction Procedure 46
3.11.1 Loading the Extractor 46
3.11.2 Siphoning and Condensation 49
3.11.3 Solvent Recovery 50
3.12 Factors Affecting Extraction Efficiency 50
3.13 Safety Considerations 52
3.14 Types of Soxhlet Apparatus 52
3.14.1 Traditional Glass Soxhlet Apparatus 52
3.14.2 Modern SE Systems 53
3.15 Comparison and Selection Based on Literatures
and Applications 55
3.16 Applications of SE in Essential Oil Production 55
3.16.1 Case Studies and Examples 55
3.16.2 Comparison with Other Extraction Methods 56
3.17 Analysis and Characterization of Extracted
Essential Oils 59
3.17.1 Quality Control Methods 59
3.17.2 Analytical Techniques 59
3.17.3 Aromatogram and Chemical Composition 60
3.18 Yield Enhancement and Optimization 61
3.18.1 Yield Improvement Strategies 61
3.18.2 Optimization Techniques 62
3.19 Experimental Design in SE 63
3.19.1 Sample Preparation, Essential Oil Production,
and Analysis 63
3.19.2 Statistical Analysis Using RSM 63
3.20 Environmental and Sustainability Considerations 63
3.20.1 Solvent Selection and Waste Management 64
3.20.2 Green SE Practices 64
3.21 Challenges and Future Trends of SE 65
3.21.1 Current Challenges in SE 66
3.21.2 Emerging Technologies and Innovations 66
3.22 Future Prospects 67
3.23 Summary of Key Points 67
3.24 Importance of SE in Essential Oil Production 69
3.25 Detailed Experimental Protocols 69
3.26 Safety Guidelines 69
3.27 Conclusion 70
References 70
Chapter 4 Pulsed Electric Field Extraction of Essential Oils 75
Olawale P. Olatidoye
4.1 Introduction to Essential Oils and Extraction Methods 75
4.2 Sources of Natural Essential Oils 77
4.3 Constituents of Essential Oil 78
4.4 Methods of Producing Essential Oils 78
4.5 Importance of Essential Oils in Various Industry 79
4.5.1 Anticancer Mechanism of Essential Oils 79
4.5.2 Essential Oil as an Antioxidant Agent:
Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oil 80
4.5.3 Essential Oil as an Antidiabetic Agent 81
4.5.4 Antimicrobial Application 82
4.5.5 Pesticidal Applications of Essential Oils 83
4.5.6 Essential Oil's Biological Activities 83
4.6 Overview of Traditional Extraction Methods 84
4.6.1 The Need for Innovative Extraction
Techniques 84
4.6.2 Basic Principle of PEF-Assisted Extraction 86
4.6.3 Basic System Components of PEF
Technology 87
4.6.4 PEF Treatment Chamber Design 89
4.6.5 Factors Affecting Pulsed Electric Technology 90
4.7 PEF-Assisted Extraction 92
4.7.1 Application of PEF in Food Processing 93
4.7.2 Application of PEF in Drying 94
4.7.3 Application of PEF in Food Freezing 94
4.7.4 PEF in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 95
4.7.5 PEF-Treated Milk and Milk Products 95
4.7.6 PEF Meat and Poultry Products 96
4.8 Limitation/Problems and Challenges of PET
Technology 96
4.8.1 Future Directions 97
4.9 Conclusion 97
References 98
Chapter 5 Mechanochemically Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 106
Jacky S. Bouanga Boudiomboa , Banele Vatsha and
Olalere Olusegun Abayomi
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 History of Mechanochemistry 107
5.3 Extraction Mechanism of MCAE 110
5.3.1 Homogenization 111
5.3.2 Cell Fragmentation 111
5.3.3 Mechanochemical Reactions 112
5.4 Mechanochemical Methods and Instrumentations 112
5.4.1 Mechanochemical Methods 112
5.5 Parameters of MCAE 115
5.5.1 Sample Preparation 115
5.5.2 Type of Raw Materials and Their Particle Size 116
5.5.3 Quantity of Raw Material in the Mill 117
5.5.4 The Solid Reagent 117
5.5.5 Milling Time 118
5.5.6 Extraction Time 118
5.5.7 Extraction Temperature 119
5.5.8 pH of Extraction 119
5.5.9 Choice of Solvents 119
5.5.10 Liquid/Solid Ratio 119
5.6 Practical Application of MCAE in Essential Oil
Extraction/Derivatives and Other Compounds 120
5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of MCAE and
Future Outlook 123
5.8 Conclusion 126
References 126
Chapter 6 Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 132
Chiazor Faustina Jisieike , Maduka Augustine Nwufo ,
Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Paul Musonge and
Ifeyinwa Obiora-Dimson
6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Mechanism of MW Heating 134
6.2.1 Working Principle of MAE 135
6.2.2 Designs of MAE Reactors 135
6.3 Advantages and Limitations of MAE 136
6.4 Advances in MAE Techniques 138
6.4.1 MW-Assisted Hydro-Distillation 139
6.4.2 Ultrasonic MW-Assisted Extraction 141
6.4.3 MW Steam Distillation 142
6.4.4 MW Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 143
6.4.5 Solvent-Free MW Extraction 145
6.4.6 Compressed Air MW Distillation 147
6.4.7 Pressurized SFME 147
6.5 Variables Affecting MAE Efficiency 147
6.5.1 MW Power 148
6.5.2 Sample Characteristics 149
6.5.3 Extraction Time 149
6.5.4 Solvent Selection 151
6.6 Economy, Energy, and Environmental Implications
of MAE 152
6.7 Future Prospects 153
6.8 Conclusion 154
References 154
Chapter 7 Microwave-Assisted Extraction: A Green Approach to
Obtaining Essential Oils 159
Rupesh Kaushik , Harjinder Kaur , Ab Waheed Wani ,
Ajay Saroha , Sanjeev Kumar and Sapna Jarial
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Essentials of MAEs 160
7.2.1 Principles and Workings of MAE 160
7.2.2 MAE System Configuration and
Instrumentation 161
7.2.3 MAE Systems Intermediary Alterations 161
7.3 Chemistry, Extraction, and Uses of Essential Oils
and Aromas 162
7.4 Techniques for Extracting Essential Oils and Aroma 164
7.4.1 Microwave Compressed Air Distillation 164
7.4.2 Hydro-distillation by Microwave 164
7.4.3 Microwave Extraction Without Solvent 166
7.4.4 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 169
7.4.5 Microwave-Assisted Distillation 172
7.4.6 Pressurised MAE 172
7.4.7 Subcritical and SFE with Microwave
Assistance 173
7.4.8 Enzymatic Extraction with Microwave
Assistance 174
7.5 Scalability Issues 175
7.5.1 Cost, Energy, and Environmental Issues 175
7.6 Industrial Applications 175
7.7 Conclusion and Prospects 175
References 176
Chapter 8 Nutraceutical Constituents and Properties and
Applications of Essential Oil 181
Anamika Chauhan
8.1 Introduction 181
8.2 Definition and Significance of Essential Oils 182
8.3 Emerging Interest in Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 183
8.4 Properties of Essential Oils 186
8.5 Applications of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 188
8.5.1 Food Preservation and Flavouring 188
8.5.2 Inhibition of Food-borne Pathogens 191
8.6 Aromatherapy 191
8.7 Benefits of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 192
8.7.1 Health Benefits 192
8.7.2 Potential Therapeutic Uses 193
8.8 Conclusion 194
8.8.1 Summary of the Importance of Essential Oils
as Nutraceuticals 195
8.8.2 Need for Further Research and Optimization
in Nutraceutical Formulations 195
References 196
Index 203