Introducing Philosophy

CHAPTERS 1-10 END WITH SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, GLOSSARY, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READINGS SECTIONS; Preface; INTRODUCTION: PHILOSOPHY; A. SOCRATES; Aristophanes, from The Clouds; Plato, from The Apology; from The Crito; B. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?; Plato, from The Apology; Lao Tsu, from Tao Te Ching; C. A MODERN APPROACH TO PHILOSOPHY; Rene Descartes, from Discourse on Method; D. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC; 1. Deductive Arguments; 2. Inductive Arguments; 3. Argument by Analogy; 4. Argument by Counter-Example; 5. Reductio ad Absurdum; 6. The Worst Kind of Fallacies; Glossary; Bibliography and Further Reading; PART ONE. THE WORLD AND BEYOND; CHAPTER 1. REALITY; A. "THE WAY THE WORLD REALLY IS"; B. THE FIRST PHILOSOPHERS: THE "TURNING POINT OF CIVILIZATION"; Karl Jaspers, from The "Axial Period"; C. THE EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHERS; 1. The Ionian Naturalists; 2. Monism, Materialism, and Immaterial "Stuff"; 3. Heraclitus; 4. Democritus, Atoms, and Pluralism; 5. Animism; 6. Pythagoras; 7. The Appearance/Reality Distinction; 8. Parmenides; 9. The Sophists; 10. Metaphysics; D. ULTIMATE REALITY IN THE EAST: INDIA, PERSIA, AND CHINA; 1. Reality as Spirit: The Upanishads; 2. Reality, Good, and Evil: Zarathustra; 3. Confucius; 4. Lao Tsu, or the Poets of Tao Te Ching; 5. Buddha; Buddha, the "Fire-Sermon"; E. TWO KINDS OF METAPHYSICS: PLATO AND ARISTOTLE; 1. Plato; Plato, from The Republic; from The Meno; 2. Aristotle; F. MODERN METAPHYSICS: DESCARTES, SPINOZA, AND LEIBNIZ; 1. Rene Descartes; Rene Descartes, On Substance; 2. Benedictus de Spinoza; Benedictus de Spinoza, from Ethics; 3. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz; Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from Monadology; CHAPTER 2. RELIGION; A. WHAT IS RELIGION?; John Wisdom, from "Gods"; Albert Einstein, on the Design of the Universe; Keiji Nishitani, from "What Is Religion?"; B. THE WESTERN RELIGIONS; 1. The Traditional Conception of God; 2. Can We Know That God Exists?; St. Anselm, The Ontological Argument; Rene Descartes, The Ontological Argument; Immanuel Kant, Against the Ontological Argument; St. Thomas Aquinas, The Cosmological Argument; St. Thomas Aquinas, The "Fifth Way"; David Hume, An Imperfect Universe; C. RELIGION, MORALITY, AND EVIL; 1. Religion and "Practical Reason"; Immanuel Kant, on God and Morality; William James, from "The Will to Believe"; 2. The Problem of Evil; St. Augustine, from Confessions; 3. Hinduism, Buddhism, Karma, and Compassion; D. REASON AND FAITH; ibn-Rushd, on the Philosophic Study of God; Fyodor Dostoyevski, from The Brothers Karamazov; E. FAITH AND IRRATIONALITY; 1. God as Experience; Mohammed al-Ghazali, from The Deliverance from Error; 2. The Leap of Faith; Soren Kierkegaard, on Subjective Truth; 3. God as Ultimate Concern; Paul Tillich, The Ultimate Concern; F. THE ATTACK ON RELIGION: MARX, NIETZSCHE, AND FREUD; Karl Marx, from Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right; Friedrich Nietzsche, from Beyond Good and Evil and The Antichrist; Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Joyful Wisdom; Sigmund Freud, from The Future of an Illusion; CHAPTER 3. KNOWLEDGE; Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy; Plato, from the Theatetus; A. THE RATIONALIST'S CONFIDENCE: DESCARTES; Rene Descartes: from "Meditation I"; from "Meditation II"; from "Meditation VI"; B. INNATE IDEAS CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING: JOHN LOCKE; John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, Leibniz's Rebuttal, from New Essays on the Human Understanding; C. THE EMPIRICIST THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE; John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; D. COMMON SENSE UNDONE: BISHOP BERKELEY; Bishop George Berkeley, from the Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge; E. THE CONGENIAL SKEPTIC: DAVID HUME; David Hume, from A Treatise of Human Nature; from the Enquiry; F. AN ANCIENT SKEPTIC: NAGARJUNA; G. DOUBLE VISION: A NON-WESTERN FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE; Uma Narayan, on Feminist Epistemology; CHAPTER 4. TRUTH; A. TWO KINDS OF TRUTH; 1. Analytic Truths; Aristotle, from Metaphysics; Immanuel Kant, from The Critique of Pure Reason; 2. Truths about the World; B. THEORIES OF TRUTH; 1. The Coherence Theory; Brand Blanshard, on the Coherence Theory; 2. The Pragmatic Theory; Charles Peirce, from "How to Make Our Ideas Clear"; William James, on the Pragmatic Theory; 3. The Semantic Theory; Alfred Tarski, from "The Semantic Theory of Truth"; C. KANT'S REVOLUTION; Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics; D. THE BATTLE IN EUROPE AFTER KANT: RELATIVISM AND ABSOLUTISM; 1. Hegel; G.W.F. Hegel, from The Phenomenology of Spirit; from Reason in History; 2. Schopenhauer; Arthur Schopenhauer, from The World as Will and Representation; 3. Nietzsche; Friedrich Nietzsche, from Various Works; E. PHENOMEONOLOGY; Edmund Husserl, from The 1929 Paris Lectures; F. HERMENEUTICS, PRAGMATISM, AND FEMINISM: RELATIVISM RECONSIDERED; Richard Rorty, from "Solidarity or Objectivity?"; Isamu Nagami, from "Cultural Gaps: Why Do We Misunderstand?"; Elizbeth Grosz, on Feminist Knowledge; PART TWO. KNOW THY SELF; CHAPTER 5. SELF; A. CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE SELF: FROM DESCARTES TO KANT; Rene Descartes, from "Meditation VI"; John Locke, on Personal Identity; David Hume, "There Is No Self"; Immanuel Kant, Against the Soul; Meredith Michaels, "Personal Identity"; B. EXISTENTIALISM: SELF-IDENTITY AND THE RESPONSIBILITY OF CHOICE; Jean-Paul Sartre, on Existentialism; on Bad Faith; from No Exit; C. THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE COMMUNITY; Friedrich Nietzsche, on the Dispensability of Consciousness; Soren Kierkegaard, on "The Public"; on Self and Passion; Martin Heidegger, "Dasein" and the "They"; David Reisman, on Individualism; 1. Voices of Protest; Malcolm X, on Being "African"; from "At the Audobon"; Sherri Ortner, from "Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?"; Ann Ferguson, on Androgyny; 2. Beyond "Individualism"; G.W.F. Hegel, "Spirit" and the Individual; Soren Kierkegaard, A Retort; Karl Marx, on the Social Self; D. ONE SELF? ANY SELF? QUESTIONING THE CONCEPT OF PERSONAL "ESSENCE"; Hermann Hesse, from Steppenwolf; Luce Irigaray, from The Sex Which Is Not One; Genevieve Lloyd, from "The Man of Reason"; From the Dhammapada; Tao Te Ching, 13; CHAPTER 6. MIND AND BODY; A. WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS?; Rene Descartes, from "Meditation VI"; from "Meditation III"; B. THE PROBLEM OF DUALISM; The Economist, "A Tour of the Brain"; Rene Descartes, from "The Passions of the Soul"; C. THE REJECTION OF DUALISM; 1. Radical Behaviorism; 2. Logical Behaviorism; Gilbert Rule, "Descartes' Myth"; 3. The Identity Theory; J.J.C. Smart, "Sensations and Brain Processes"; Jerome Shaffer, Against the Identity Theory; 4. Eliminative Materialism; Paul M. Churchland, on Eliminative Materialism; 5. Functionalism: The Mind and the Computer; John R. Searle, from "The Myth of the Computer"; 6. Connectionism; D. THE PROBLEM OF CONSCIOUSNESS; Sigmund Freud, on the "Unconscious"; Thomas Nagel, "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"; 1. Changing Our Minds: Holism and Consciousness; Aristotle, from De Anima; William James, from "Does Consciousness Exist?"; CHAPTER 7. FREEDOM; A. FATALISM AND KARMA; Sophocles, from Oedipus the King; Keiji Nishitani, on Fate; B. PREDESTINATION; St. Augustine, On Free Choice of the Will, Book II; Mohammad Iqbal, from "The Human Ego: Its Freedom and Immortality"; Jackie Trimier, on the Yoruba Ori; Jonathan Edwards, from "Freedom of the Will"; C. DETERMINISM; 1. Hard Determinism; Paul Henri d'Holbach, from System of Nature; 2. Determinism versus Indeterminism; Robert Kane, on Indeterminism; 3. The Role of Consciousness; 4. Soft Determinism; John Stuart Mill, on Causation and Necessity; David Hume, on Causation and Character; Robert Kane, from "Wiggle Room"; D. COMPULSION AND IGNORANCE; Aristotle, on Voluntary Action; John Hospers, from "What Means This Freedom?"; 1. Conditioning; B.F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom; Robert Kane, Beyond Skinner; Anthony Burgess, from A Clockwork Orange; Catherine MacKinnon, on Coercion of Women's Sexuality; E. FREEDOM IN PRACTICE; Harry Frankfurt, "Coercion and Moral Responsibility"; Martin Luther King, Jr., "The Dilemma of Negro Americans"; F. RADICAL FREEDOM: EXISTENTIALISM; Jean-Paul Sartre, from "Absolute Freedom"; Fyodor Dostoyevski, from "The Most Advantageous Advantage"; Thich Nhat Hanh, from "Turning on the Television"; PART THREE. THE GOOD AND THE BEAUTIFUL; CHAPTER 8. ETHICS; A. MORALITY; B. IS MORALITY RELATIVE?; Walter Stace, on Ethical Relativism; Margaret Mead, Sex and Temperament; C. EGOISM AND ALTRUISM; Plato, from The Republic; Joseph Butler, Against Egoism; D. MORALITY AS VIRTUE: ARISTOTLE; Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics; E. MORALITY AND SENTIMENT: HUME AND ROUSSEAU; David Hume, on "Reason as Slave of the Passions"; Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from Emile; F. MORALITY AND PRACTICAL REASON: KANT; Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals; G. UTILITARIANISM; Jeremy Bentham, from The Principles of Morals and Legislation; John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism; H. THE CREATION OF MORALITY: NIETZSCHE AND EXISTENTIALISM; Friedrich Nietzsche, on "Master and Slave Morality"; Jean-Paul Sartre, from "Existentialism"; I. ETHICS AND GENDER; Virginia Held, on Feminist Ethics; John Corvino, from Same Sex: Debating the Ethics, Science, and Culture of Homosexuality; CHAPTER 9. JUSTICE; A. THE PROBLEM OF JUSTICE; 1. Two Ancient Theories of Justice: Plato and Aristotle; Plato, from The Republic; Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics; 2. Two Modern Theories of Justice: Hume and Mill on Utility and Rights; David Hume, on "Justice and Utility"; John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism; 3. The Social Contract; Thomas Hobbes, from Leviathan; Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from The Social Contract; Thomas Jefferson et al., from the Declaration of Independence; 4. Two Contemporary Theories of Justice: Rawls and Nozick; John Rawls, from "Justice as Fairness"; Robert Nozick, from Anarchy, State and Utopia; 5. Justice or Care: A Feminist Perspective; Cheshire Calhoun, from "Justice, Care, Gender Bias"; B. INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOM; John Locke, from The Second Treatise on Government; John Stuart Mill, On Liberty; C. FIGHTING FOR RIGHTS AND JUSTICE; Frederick Douglass, "In Defense of Purchasing Freedom"; Henry David Thoreau, "Civil Disobedience"; Martin Luther King, Jr., from "Letter from Birmingham Jail"; Malcolm X, "The Ballot or the Bullet"; Nelson Mandela, from Long Walk to Freedom; D. On the Origins of Good and Evil; Mencius, from Human Nature; Hsun Tsu, from Human Nature Is Evil; CHAPTER 10. BEAUTY; A. PLATO AND THE TRANSCENDENCE OF BEAUTY; Plato, from The Symposium; from The Ion; from The Republic; B. ARISTOTLE AND THE SELF-SUFFICIENCY OF ART; Aristotle, from The Poetics; C. THE DISPUTE ABOUT TASTES; David Hume, from "Of the Standard of Taste"; D. KANT: DISPUTES ABOUT TASTE RESOLVED; E. AFTER KANT: ART, SOCIETY, AND SELF-AWARENESS; 1. G.W.F. Hegel; G.W.F. Hegel, from The Philosophy of Fine Art; 2. Arthur Schopenhauer; 3. Friedrich Nietzsche; F. ART AND REALITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY; Jose Ortega y Gasset, from The Dehumanization of Art; John Dewey, from Art as Experience; G. THE OTHER HALF OF THE PICTURE: FEMINIST AESTHETICS; Marilyn French, "Is There a Feminist Aesthetic?"; H. ART AND CULTURE: JAPAN AND AFRICA; Mara Miller, on Japanese Erotic Art; Isidore Okpewho, on Traditional African Art; BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES; LITERARY CREDITS; INDEX