Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing
Description
In the newly revised second edition of Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an in-depth review of the features and structural properties of ice, as well as the latest advances in geophysical sensors, ice parameter retrieval techniques, and remote sensing data. The book has been updated to reflect the latest scientific developments in macro- and micro-scale sea ice research.
For this edition, the authors have included high-quality photographs of thin sections from cores of various ice types, as well as a comprehensive account of all major field expeditions that have systematically surveyed sea ice and its properties. Readers will also find:
A thorough introduction to ice physics and physical processes, including ice morphology and age-based structural features
Practical discussions of radiometric and radar-scattering observations from sea ice, including radar backscatter and microwave penetration depth
The latest techniques for the retrieval of sea ice parameters from space-borne and airborne sensor data
New chapters on sea ice thermal microwave emissions and on the impact of climate change on the polar ice caps
Perfect for academic researchers working on sea ice, the cryosphere, and climatology, Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing will also benefit meteorologists, marine operators, and high-latitude construction engineers.
<b>SEA ICE</b>
<b>The latest edition of the gold standard in sea ice references</b>
In the newly revised second edition of <i>Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing</i>, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an in-depth review of the features and structural properties of ice, as well as the latest advances in geophysical sensors, ice parameter retrieval techniques, and remote sensing data. The book has been updated to reflect the latest scientific developments in macro- and micro-scale sea ice research.
For this edition, the authors have included high-quality photographs of thin sections from cores of various ice types, as well as a comprehensive account of all major field expeditions that have systematically surveyed sea ice and its properties. Readers will also find:
<ul><li> A thorough introduction to ice physics and physical processes, including ice morphology and age-based structural features</li><li> Practical discussions of radiometric and radar-scattering observations from sea ice, including radar backscatter and microwave penetration depth</li><li> The latest techniques for the retrieval of sea ice parameters from space-borne and airborne sensor data</li><li> New chapters on sea ice thermal microwave emissions and on the impact of climate change on the polar ice caps</li></ul>Perfect for academic researchers working on sea ice, the cryosphere, and climatology, <i>Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing</i> will also benefit meteorologists, marine operators, and high-latitude construction engineers.
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Nirmal K. Sinha is Emeritus Scientist at the Institute for Aerospace Research and the National Research Council of Canada, and has recently published another book with Wiley that deals with the physics and mechanics of ice, Engineering Physics of High-temperature Materials: Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics.
<b>Mohammed Shokr</b> is Research Scientist Emeritus at the Meteorological Research Division of Environment and Climate Change Canada. He is a member of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society and the CASI Canadian Remote Sensing Society.
<b>Nirmal K. Sinha</b> is Emeritus Scientist at the Institute for Aerospace Research and the National Research Council of Canada, and has recently published another book with Wiley that deals with the physics and mechanics of ice, <i>Engineering Physics of High-temperature Materials: Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics</i>.
Content
PREFACE
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Canada and the Arctic: historical and community synopsis
1.3 The fascinating nature of sea ice
1.4 Sea ice in research and operational disciplines
1.4.1 Sea ice in physics
1.4.2 Sea ice in climatology
1.4.3 Sea ice in meteorology
1.4.4 Sea ice in oceanography
1.4.5 Sea ice in marine biology
1.4.6 Sea ice in marine navigation
1.4.7 Sea ice and offshore structures
1.4.8 Sea ice as a transportation platform
1.4.9 Sea ice in relation to solid earth sciences: rocks and plate tectonics
1.5 Sea ice and remote sensing
1.6 Motivation for the book writing
1.7 Organization of the book
Chapter 2: Ice Physics and Physical Processes
2.1 Prior to freezing: about fresh and seawater
2.1.1 Molecular composition of water
2.1.2 Seawater salinity
2.1.3 Seawater density
2.2 Phase diagram of sea ice
2.3 Initial Ice Formation
2.3.1 Freezing processes in freshwater and seawater
2.3.2 Initial formation of ice crystals and frazil ice
2.4 Sea Ice Growth
2.4.1 Lateral ice growth
2.4.2 Vertical ice growth (congelation ice)
2.4.3 Superimposed ice
2.4.4 Thermodynamic ice growth
2.4.4.1 Simplified models of sea ice growth
2.4.4.2 Effect of snow on sea ice
2.4.4.3 Effect of oceanic heat flux
2.4.4.4 Effect of surface ablation
2.5 Inclusions in Ice
2.5.1 Compositional (constitutional) supercooling at the ice-water interface
2.5.2 Dendritic ice-water interface and entrapment of brine within sea ice
2.5.3 Grains and subgrains in sea ice
2.5.4 Brine pockets formation, contents and distribution in sea ice
2.5.5 Salinity loss during sea ice growth
2.5.5.1 Initial rapid salt rejection at the ice-water interface
2.5.5.2 Subsequent slow salt rejection from the bulk ice
2.6 Ice Deformation
2.6.1 Rafting of thin ice
2.6.2 Ridging of thick ice
2.6.3 Ice crushing and formation of rubble fields
2.6.4 Fractures in the ice cover
2.7 Ice Decay and Aging
2.7.1 Ice decay
2.7.2 Ice aging
2.8 Ice classes and ice regimes
2.9 Sea ice regimes
2.9.1 Polynyas
2.9.2 Pancake ice regime
2.9.3 Ice edge and marginal ice zone
2.9.3.1 Marginal ice zone
2.9.3.2 Ice edge
2.9.4 Ice of glacier origin
Chapter 3: Sea Ice Physical Properties
3.1 Typical values of sea ice and snow physical parameters
3.2 Temperature profiles in ice and snow
3.3 Bulk salinity and salinity profile
3.3.1 Bulk salinity
3.3.2 Salinity profile
3.4 Density of first-year and multi-year ice
3.5 Volume fraction of sea ice constituents
3.5.1 Brine volume fraction
3.5.2 Solid salt volume fraction
3.5.3 Pure ice volume fraction
3.5.4 Air volume fraction
3.5.5 Temperature dependence of volume fraction of different components
3.6 Thermal properties
3.6.1 Thermal conductivity of sea ice
3.6.2 Thermal conductivity of snow
3.6.3 Specific heat of sea ice
3.6.4 Latent heat of fusion
3.7 Dielectric properties
3.7.1 Dielectric constant of brine
3.7.2 Dielectric mixing models
3.7.3 Field measurements of sea ice dielectric constant
Chapter 4: Laboratory techniques for Revealing the Polycrystalline Structure of Ice
4.1 Relevant optical properties
4.1.1 Polarized light
4.1.2 Birefringence or double refraction in ice (Ih)
4.1.3 Optical retardation
4.1.4 Interference colors for white light
4.2 Ice thin sectioning techniques
4.2.1 Hot- and cold-plate technique for thin sectioning of ice
4.2.2 Double-microtoming technique for thin sectioning of ice
4.2.3 Double-microtoming technique for thin sectioning of snow
4.2.4 Precautions for thin sectioning by DMT
4.2.5 Optimum thickness for thin sections of ice and snow
4.3 Viewing and photographing ice thin sections
4.3.1 Laboratory and hand-held polariscope
4.3.2 Cross-polarized versus parallel-polarized light viewing
4.3.3 Scattered light and combined cross-polarized/scattered light viewing
4.3.4 Circularly polarized light and rapid crystallographic analysis
4.4 Advanced techniques for revealing fine crystallographic microstructural features
4.4.1 Sublimation of ice and sublimation etch pits
4.4.2 Etching processes
4.4.2.1 Thermal etching of microtomed ice surfaces
4.4.2.2 Chemical etching and replicating ice surfaces
Chapter 5: Polycrystalline Ice Structure
5.1 Terms and definitions relevant to polycrystalline ice
5.1.1 Special thermal state of natural ice
5.1.2 General terms for structural aspects of ice
5.1.3 Basic terms and definitions
5.2 Morphology of ice
5.2.1 Form of ice crystals
5.2.2 Miller Indices for hexagonal ice
5.2.3 Growth direction of ice crystals
5.2.4 Ice density in relation to crystalline structure
5.3 Structural- and textural-based crystalline classification of natural ice
5.3.1 Fresh-water ice classification of Michel and Ramseier
5.3.2 Extending crystallographic classification of fresh-water ice to sea ice
5.3.3 Crystallographic classes of natural ice
5.3.3.1 Granular or snow ice (T1 ice)
5.3.3.2 Randomly oriented (S4) and vertically oriented (S5) frazil ice
5.3.3.3 Columnar-grained with c axis vertical (S1 ice)
5.3.3.4 Columnar-grained with c axis horizontal and random (S2 ice)
5.3.3.5 Columnar-grained with c axis horizontal and oriented (S3 ice)
5.3.3.6 Agglomerate ice with discontinuous columnar-grained (R type ice)
5.3.3.7 Ice of glacier origin
5.3.3.8 Platelet sea ice crystals
5.3.4 Stereographical projection (fabric diagram) of natural polycrystalline ice
5.4 Examples of crystallographic structure of natural sea ice
5.4.1 Crystallographic structure of seasonal sea ice
5.4.1.1 Frazil ice (S5 type)
5.4.1.2 Columnar-grained ice (S3 type)
5.4.1.3 Agglomeration or various crystallographic structure
5.4.1.4 Air entrapment in seasonal sea ice
5.4.2 Crystallographic structure of perennial sea ice
5.4.2.1 Hummock ice
5.4.2.2 Melt pond ice
5.5 Biomass accumulation at the bottom of the ice
5.6 Information contents in polycrystalline ice structure
5.6.1 Geometric characteristics of crystalline structure
5.6.2 Geometric characteristics of brine pockets in first-year ice
5.6.3 Geometric characteristics of air bubbles
Chapter 6: Major field expeditions to study sea ice
6.1 The Arctic Ice Dynamic Joint Experiment (AIDJEX)
6.2 Mould Bay experiments 1981-1984: stories that were never told
6.2.1 Site, resources and logistics
6.2.2 Sea ice conditions
6.2.3 Aging of sea ice: from FYI to MYI
6.2.4 Interface between old and new ice in a second-year ice profile
6.3 High Arctic experiences with ice of land origin
6.3.1 Ward Hunt Ice Shelf experiment and Hobson's Choice ice island experiment
6.3.2 Multi-year ice rubble field around the ice island
6.4 Labrador Ice Margin Experiment (LIMEX)
6.5 Sea Ice Monitoring and Modeling Site (SIMMS) program
6.6 The Surface Heat Budget of Arctic Ocean (SHEBA)
6.7 Norwegian Young Sea Ice Experiment (N-ICE)
6.8 Marginal Ice Zone (MIZ) experiments
6.9 Ice Exercise by U.S. Navy
6.10 the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC)
Chapter 7: Remote Sensing Principles Relevant to Sea Ice
7.1 General principles of satellite remote sensing
7.2 Electromagnetic wave properties and processes
7.2.1 Polarization and depolarization of EM wave
7.2.2 Reflection, transmission, absorption, scattering and emission
7.2.2.1 Reflection and Fresnel model
7.2.2.2 Transmission
7.2.2.3 Absorption and scattering losses
7.2.2.4 Emitted radiation (re-radiation)
7.2.3 Brightness temperature and emissivity
7.2.4 Penetration depth
7.3 Optical remote sensing
7.4 Thermal infrared remote sensing
7.5 Passive Microwave sensing
7.6 Imaging Radar sensing
7.6.1 Imaging radar principles
7.6.1.1 Radar equations and spatial resolutions of RAR and SAR
7.6.1.2 Coherency and polarization of radar signals
7.6.1.3 Radar scattering mechanisms
7.6.2 Multichannel SAR
7.6.3 Radar polarimetry: formulation and derived parameters
7.6.3.1 Formulation of polarimetric measurements
7.6.3.2 Polarimetric parameters derived from the fully polarimetric SAR data
7.6.3.3 Linking radar scattering mechanisms to ice features
7.6.3.4 Age-based versus SAR-based and scattering-based sea ice classification
7.7 Scatterometer systems
7.8 Altimeter systems
7.9 Radiative processes in relevant media
7.9.1 Atmospheric influences
7.9.1.1 Influence of atmosphere on optical and infrared observations
7.9.1.2 Atmospheric correction for passive microwave observations
7.9.2 Sea water
7.9.2.1 Sea water in the optical and thermal infrared regions
7.9.2.2. Sea water in the microwave region
7.9.3 Snow on sea: physical and radiative processes
7.9.3.1 Snow in the optical and thermal infrared regions
7.9.3.2 Snow in the microwave region
Chapter 8 Satellite sensors for sea ice and snow monitoring
8.1 Historical synopsis of microwave remote sensing satellites for sea ice
8.2 Optical and thermal infrared sensors
8.3 Modern passive microwave sensors
8.4 Modern imaging radar sensors
8.5 Scatterometer sensors
8.6 Altimeter sensors
Chapter 9: Radiometric and scattering observations from sea ice, water and snow
9.1 Optical reflectance and albedo
9.2 Microwave brightness temperature data
9.3 Radar backscatter
9.3.1 Backscatter databases from single-channel SAR
9.3.2 Dual polarization data
9.3.3 Fully polarimetric data
9.4 Emissivity data in the microwave bands
9.5 Microwave penetration depth
Chapter 10: Retrieval of Sea Ice Surface Information
10.1 Mechanically-generated surface deformation
10.1.1 Rafted ice
10.1.2 Ridges, rubbles and brash ice
10.1.3 Kinematic processes: convergence, divergence, shear and vorticity
10.1.4 Cracks and leads
10.2 Thermally-induced surface features
10.2.1 Surface melt
10.2.1.1 Optical observations
10.2.1.2 Passive microwave observations
10.2.1.3 Active microwave observations
10.2.1.4 Airborne photography
10.2.2 Frost flowers
10.3 Meteorologically-generated surface features
10.3.1 Polynya identification and properties
10.3.2 Snow depth
Chapter 11: Retrieval of Sea Ice Geophysical Parameters
11.1 Se ice type classification
11.1.1 Ice classification from optical and TIR systems
11.1.2 Ice classification from passive microwave data
11.1.3 Ice classification from SAR
11.1.3.1 Ice classification from single-channel SAR
11.1.3.2 Ice classification from dual-channel SAR
11.1.3.3 Ice classification from polarimetric SAR data
11.2 Sea ice concentration
11.2.1 Ice concentration from optical and TIR images
11.2.2 Ice concentration from coarse-resolution microwave observations
11.2.2.1 NASA Team Algorithm (NT)
11.2.2.2 Enhanced NASA Team Algorithm (NT2)
11.2.2.3 ARTIST Sea Ice (ASI) algorithm
11.2.2.4 Environment's Canada Ice Concentration Extractor (ECICE)
11.2.2.5 Intercomparison of passive microwave algorithms
11.2.2.6 Sources of error and sensitivity of algorithms
11.2.2.7 Assessment of ice concentration against ice charts
11.2.3 Ice concentration from fine-resolution SAR
11.3 Sea ice extent and area
11.4 Sea ice thickness (SIT)
11.4.1 SIT from thermal infrared observations
11.4.2 SIT from passive microwave observation
11.4.3 SIT from altimeter observations
11.4.4 SIT from SAR observations
11.5 Ice surface temperature (IST)
11.5.1 IST from TIR observations
11.5.2 IST from passive microwave observations
11.6 Sea ice age
11.7 Sea ice motion and kinematics
11.7.1 Methods of ice motion tracking
11.7.1.1 Motion tracking using image features
11.7.1.2 Motion tracking using individual sea ice floes
11.7.2 Operational ice motion products
Chapter 12. Modeling microwave emission and scattering from snow-covered sea ice
12.1 Modeling Microwave emission and scattering from snow-covered sea ice
12.1.1 The ECMWF workshop and large scale sea ice modeling
12.1.2 Gross features of forward modeling
12.2 Radiative transfer and modeling approaches for sea ice thermal microwave emission
12.2.1 Dense media volume scattering
12.2.2 Sea ice emission models
12.2.3 Sea ice backscatter models for level ice
12.2.4 Sea ice backscatter models for ridged ice
12.3 The input to a forward model
12.3.1 Primary input parameters
12.3.2 Secondary input parameters
12.3.3 Tertiary input parameters, volume and surface scattering
12.4 Example of the implementation of an altimeter model to study the impact of saline snow on the backscatter
12.5 Example combining a thermodynamical model with atmospheric, ocean and sea ice emission models to simulate the noise in sea ice concentration estimates
12.5.1 Snow in the emission models
12.5.2 The combined sea ice thermodynamic, atmospheric, ocean and sea ice emission models
12.6 Inverse modeling
Chapter 13 Impacts of climate change on polar ice
13.1 The inconvenient truth of global warming: how is it relevant to the polar region?
13.2 Sea ice regimes in the two polar regions
13.2.1 Geographic differences between the two polar regions and their impacts on sea ice
13.2.2 Differences in sea ice characteristics between the two polar regions
13.3 Changes of polar sea ice in response to global warming
13.3.1 Arctic and Antarctic ice extent
13.3.2 Arctic and Antarctic ice thickness and volume
13.3.3 Arctic sea ice age
13.3.4 Arctic sea ice dynamics
13.3.5 Antarctic icebergs and their interaction with sea ice
13.4 Coupling between polar sea ice and environmental factors
13.4.1 Interaction of Arctic sea ice with the environment
13.4.1.1 Atmospheric factors that contribute to changes in sea ice
13.4.1.2 Enhanced Arctic warming due to changes of sea ice cover
13.4.1.3 Arctic warming due to sea ice advection out of the Arctic basin
13.4.1.4 Interaction of Arctic sea ice with wind
13.4.1.5 Mutual interactions between sea ice cover and oceanic forcing
13.4.2 Interaction of Antarctic sea ice with the environment
13.4.2.1 Interaction of Antarctic sea ice with atmospheric factors
13.4.2.2 Interaction of Antarctic sea ice with oceanic forcing
13.4.2.3 Interaction between Antarctic sea ice, ice shelves and iceberg?