Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers

1 Materials for Engineering 1

1.1 The Material World 1

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2

1.3 Six Materials That Changed Your World 3

STEEL BRIDGES-INTRODUCING METALS 3

LUCALOX LAMPS-INTRODUCING CERAMICS 5

OPTICAL FIBERS-INTRODUCING GLASSES 9

NYLON PARACHUTES-INTRODUCING POLYMERS 11

KEVLAR (R)-REINFORCED TIRES-INTRODUCING

COMPOSITES 13

SILICON CHIPS-INTRODUCING SEMICONDUCTORS 14

1.4 Processing and Selecting Materials 15

1.5 Looking at Materials by Powers of Ten 17

PART I The Fundamentals



2 Atomic Bonding 22

2.1 Atomic Structure 22

2.2 The Ionic Bond 28

COORDINATION NUMBER 32

2.3 The Covalent Bond 39

2.4 The Metallic Bond 45

2.5 The Secondary, or van der Waals, Bond 47

2.6 Materials-The Bonding Classification 50



3 Crystalline Structure-Perfection 58

3.1 Seven Systems and Fourteen Lattices 58

3.2 Metal Structures 62

3.3 Ceramic Structures 66

3.4 Polymeric Structures 74

3.5 Semiconductor Structures 76

3.6 Lattice Positions, Directions, and Planes 80

3.7 X-Ray Diffraction 92



4 Crystal Defects and Noncrystalline

Structure-Imperfection 102

4.1 The Solid Solution-Chemical Imperfection 102

4.2 Point Defects-Zero-Dimensional

Imperfections 108

4.3 Linear Defects, or Dislocations-One-Dimensional

Imperfections 110

4.4 Planar Defects-Two-Dimensional

Imperfections 113

4.5 Noncrystalline Solids-Three-Dimensional

Imperfections 118



5 Diffusion 126

5.1 Thermally Activated Processes 126

5.2 Thermal Production of Point Defects 130

5.3 Point Defects and Solid-State Diffusion 132

5.4 Steady-State Diffusion 142

5.5 Alternate Diffusion Paths 146



6 Mechanical Behavior 152

6.1 Stress Versus Strain 152

METALS 153

CERAMICS AND GLASSES 164

POLYMERS 168

6.2 Elastic Deformation 173

6.3 Plastic Deformation 174

6.4 Hardness 181

6.5 Creep and Stress Relaxation 185

6.6 Viscoelastic Deformation 193

INORGANIC GLASSES 194

ORGANIC POLYMERS 196

ELASTOMERS 199



7 Thermal Behavior 210

7.1 Heat Capacity 210

7.2 Thermal Expansion 213

7.3 Thermal Conductivity 216

7.4 Thermal Shock 221



8 Failure Analysis and Prevention 227

8.1 Impact Energy 228

8.2 Fracture Toughness 233

8.3 Fatigue 237

8.4 Nondestructive Testing 246

8.5 Failure Analysis and Prevention 249



9 Phase Diagrams-Equilibrium

Microstructural Development 257

9.1 The Phase Rule 258

9.2 The Phase Diagram 261

COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION 262

EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH NO SOLID SOLUTION 265

EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION 267

EUTECTOID DIAGRAM 269

PERITECTIC DIAGRAM 271

GENERAL BINARY DIAGRAMS 275

9.3 The Lever Rule 281

9.4 Microstructural Development During Slow

Cooling 285



10 Kinetics-Heat Treatment 304

10.1 Time-The Third Dimension 304

10.2 The T T T Diagram 309

DIFFUSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS 310

DIFFUSIONLESS (MARTENSITIC) TRANSFORMATIONS 311

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL 316

10.3 Hardenability 324

10.4 Precipitation Hardening 327

10.5 Annealing 330

COLD WORK 331

RECOVERY 331

RECRYSTALLIZATION 332

GRAIN GROWTH 334

10.6 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations for

Nonmetals 335

PART II Materials and Their

Applications



11 Structural Materials-Metals,

Ceramics, and Glasses 348

11.1 Metals 348

FERROUS ALLOYS 348

NONFERROUS ALLOYS 355

11.2 Ceramics and Glasses 359

CERAMICS-CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 360

GLASSES-NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 361

GLASS-CERAMICS 363

11.3 Processing the Structural Materials 365

PROCESSING OF METALS 366

PROCESSING OF CERAMICS AND GLASSES 372



12 Structural Materials-Polymers

and Composites 381

12.1 Polymers 381

POLYMERIZATION 382

STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF POLYMERS 387

THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS 391

THERMOSETTING POLYMERS 392

ADDITIVES 394

12.2 Composites 396

FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 396

AGGREGATE COMPOSITES 403

PROPERTY AVERAGING 405

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES 411

12.3 Processing the Structural Materials 416

PROCESSING OF POLYMERS 416

PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES 417



13 Electronic Materials 426

13.1 Charge Carriers and Conduction 427

13.2 Energy Levels and Energy Bands 431

13.3 Conductors 437

THERMOCOUPLES 440

SUPERCONDUCTORS 441

13.4 Insulators 449

13.5 Semiconductors 451

INTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 452

EXTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 457

COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS 469

PROCESSING OF SEMICONDUCTORS 472

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 476

13.6 Composites 485

13.7 Electrical Classification of Materials 485



14 Materials in Engineering Design 493

14.1 Material Properties-Engineering Design

Parameters 493

14.2 Selection of Structural Materials-Case

Studies 498

MATERIALS FOR WINDSURFER MASTS 499

METAL SUBSTITUTION WITH COMPOSITES 503

MATERIALS FOR HIP-JOINT REPLACEMENT 503

14.3 Selection of Electronic Materials-Case

Studies 506

AMORPHOUS METAL FOR ELECTRIC-POWER

DISTRIBUTION 507

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE 511

14.4 Materials and Our Environment 514

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS 514

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DESIGN 523

RECYCLING 526



APPENDIX ONE

Physical and Chemical Data

for the Elements A-1



APPENDIX TWO

Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements A-4



APPENDIX THREE

Constants and Conversion Factors A-7



APPENDIX FOUR

Properties of the Structural Materials A-8



APPENDIX FIVE

Properties of the Electronic Materials A-17



APPENDIX SIX



Glossary A-20

Answers to Practice Problems (PP)

and Odd-Numbered Problems AN-1

Index I-1