A Comprehensive Guide to Radiographic Sciences and Technology

Foreword Preface SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION Chapter 1: Radiographic Sciences and Technology: An Overview Radiographic Imaging Systems: Major Modalities and Components Radiographic Imaging Physics Essential Physics of Diagnostic Imaging Digital Radiographic Imaging Modalities Radiographic Exposure Technique Image Quality Considerations Computed Tomography-Physics and Instrumentation Quality Control Imaging Informatics at a Glance Radiation Protection and Dose Optimization Radiobiology Technical Factors Affecting Dose in Radiographic Imaging Radiation Protection in Diagnostic Radiography Radiation Protection Regulations Optimization of Radiation Protection References Chapter 2: Digital Radiographic Imaging Systems: Major Components Film-Screen Radiography: A Short Review of Principles Digital Radiography Modalities: Major System Components Computed Radiography Flat-Panel Digital Radiography Digital Fluoroscopy Digital Mammography Computed Tomography Image Communication Systems Picture Archiving and Communication System References SECTION 2: BASIC RADIOGRAPHIC SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY Chapter 3: Basic Physics of Diagnostic Radiography Structure of the Atom Nucleus Electrons, Quantum Levels, Binding Energy, Electron Volts Energy Dissipation in Matter Excitation Ionization Types of Radiation Electromagnetic Particulate X-Ray Generation X-Ray Production Properties of X-rays Origin of X-Rays Characteristic Radiation Bremstrahlung Radiation X-ray Emission X-Ray Beam Quantity and Quality Factors Affecting X-Ray Beam Quantity and Quality Interaction of Radiation with Matter Mechanisms of Interaction in Diagnostic X-Ray Imaging Radiation Attenuation Linear Attenuation Coefficient Mass Attenuation Coefficient Half Value Layer Radiation Quantities and Units References Chapter 4: The X-Ray Tube and Generator Physical Components of the X-Ray Machine Components of the X-Ray Circuit The Power Supply to the X-Ray Circuit The Low Voltage Section (Control Console) The High Voltage Section Types of X-Ray Generators Three-Phase Generators High-Frequency Generators Power Ratings The X-Ray Tube: Structure and Function Major Components Special X-Ray Tubes: Basic Design Features Double-Bearing Axle Heat Capacity and Heat Dissipation Considerations X-Ray Beam Filtration and Collimation Inherent and Added Filtration Effects of Filtration on X-ray Tube Output Intensity Half-Value Layer Collimation References Chapter 5: Digital Image Processing at a Glance Digital Image Processing Definition Image Formation and Representation Processing Operations Characteristics of Digital Images Gray Scale Processing Windowing Conclusion References Chapter 6: Digital Radiographic Imaging Modalities: Principles and Technology Computer Radiography Essential Steps Basic Physical Principles Response of the IP to Radiation Exposure Standardized Exposure Indicator Flat-Panel Digital Radiography What is Flat-Panel Digital Radiography (FPDR)? Types of FPDR Systems Basic Physical Principles of Indirect and Direct Flat-Panel Detectors The Fill Factor of the Pixel in the Flat-Panel Detector Exposure Indicator Image Quality Descriptors for DR Systems Continuous Quality Improvement for DR Systems Digital Fluoroscopy Digital Fluoroscopy Modes Image Intensifier-Based Digital Fluoroscopy Characteristics Flat-Panel Digital Fluoroscopy Characteristics Digital Mammography Screen-Film Mammography: Basic Principles Full-Field Digital Mammography-Major Elements Digital Tomosynthesis at a Glance Imaging System Characteristics Synthesized 2D Digital Mammography References Chapter 7: Image Quality and Dose The process of Creating an Image Image Quality Metrics Contrast Contrast Resolution Spatial Resolution Noise Contrast-to-Noise Ratio Signal-to-Noise Ratio Artifacts Dose and Image Quality Digital Detector Response to the Dose Detective Quantum Efficiency References SECTION 3: COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY: BASIC PHYSICS and TECHNOLOGY Chapter 8: The Essential Technical Aspects of Computed Tomography Physics Radiation Attenuation Technology Data Acquisition: Principles and Components Image Reconstruction Image Display, Storage, and Communication MultiSlice CT (MSCT): Principles and Technology Slip-Ring Technology X-Ray Tube Technology Interpolation Algorithms MSCT Detector Technology Selectable Scan Parameters Isotropic CT Imaging MSCT Image Processing Image Postprocessing Windowing 3-D Image Display Techniques Image Quality Spatial Resolution Contrast Resolution Noise Radiation Protection CT Dosimetry Factors Affecting Patient Dose Optimizing Radiation Protection Conclusion References SECTION 4: CONTINUOUS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT Chapter 9: Fundamentals of Quality Control Introduction Definitions Essential Steps of QC QC Responsibilities Steps in Conducting a QC Test The Tolerance Limits or Acceptance Criteria Parameters for QC Monitoring QC Testing Frequency Tools for QC Testing The Format of a QC Test Performance Criteria/Tolerance Limits for Common QC Tests Radiography Fluoroscopy Repeat Image Analysis Computed Tomography QC Tests for Technologists References SECTION 5: PACS and IMAGING INFORMATICS Chapter 10: Imaging Informatics at a Glance Introduction Picture Archiving and Communication Systems: Characteristic Features Definition Core Technical Components Imaging Informatics? Enterprise Imaging Cloud Computing Big Data Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and Deep Learning Applications in Medical Imaging AI in CT Image Reconstruction Ethics of AI in Radiology-A Joint Multi-Society Summary Statement. References SECTION 5: RADIATION PROTECTION Chapter 11: Basic Concepts of Radiobiology What is Radiobiology? Generalizations About Radiation Effects on Living Organisms Relevant Physical Processes Ionization Excitation Linear Energy Transfer Relative Biological Effectiveness Radiolysis of Water Dose-Response Models The Linear Non-Threshold (LNT) Dose-Response Model The Linear Threshold Dose-Response Model Stochastic Effects Deterministic Effects Radiation Effects on the Conceptus References Chapter 12: Technical Dose Factors in Radiography, Fluoroscopy, and CT Dose Factors in Digital Radiography The X-Ray Generator Exposure Technique Factors X-Ray Beam Filtration Collimation and Field Size SID and SSD Patient Thickness and Density Scattered Radiation Grid The Sensitivity of the Image Receptor Dose Factors in Fluoroscopy Fluoroscopic Exposure Factors Fluoroscopic Equipment Factors CT Radiation Dose Factors and Dose Optimization Considerations Dose Distribution in the Patient CT dose Metrics Factors Affecting the Dose in CT Dose Optimization Overview References Chapter 13: Essential Principles of Radiation Protection Introduction Why Radiation Protection? Categories of Data from Human Exposure Radiation Dose-Risk Models Summary of Biological Effects Radiation Protection Organizations Objectives of Radiation Protection Radiation Protection Philosophy ICRP Radiation Protection Framework Justification Optimization Dose Limits Dose Limits Personal Actions Time Shielding Distance Radiation Quantities and Units Sources of Radiation Exposure Quantities and Units Personnel Dosimetry Optimization of Radiation Protection Regulatory and Guidance Recommendations Diagnostic Reference Levels Gonadal Shielding: Past Considerations X-Ray Protective Shielding Current State of Gonadal Shielding References Index