Emotion Explained

1. Introduction: the issues ; 1.1 Introduction ; 1.2 Rewards and punishers ; 1.3 Approaches to emotion and motivation ; 1.4 Outline ; 2. The nature of emotion ; 2.1 Introduction ; 2.2 A theory of emotion ; 2.3 Different emotions ; 2.4 Refinements of the theory of emotion ; 2.5 The classification of emotion ; 2.6 Other theories of emotion ; 2.7 Individual differences in emotion, personality and emotional intelligence ; 2.8 Cognition and emotion ; 2.9 Emotion, motivation, reward and mood ; 2.10 The concept of emotion ; 2.11 Advantages of the approach ; 3. The functions of emotion: reward, punishment and emotion in brain design ; 3.1 Introduction ; 3.2 Brain design and the functions of emotion ; 3.3 Selection of behaviour: cost-benefit 'analysis' ; 3.4 Further functions of emotion ; 3.5 The functions of emotion in an evolutionary, Darwinian, context ; 3.6 The functions of motivation in an evolutionary, Darwinian, context ; 3.7 Are all goals for action gene-specified? ; 4. The brain mechanisms underlying emotion ; 4.1 Introduction ; 4.2 Overview ; 4.3 Representations of primary reinforcers ; 4.4 Representing potential secondary reinforcers ; 4.5 The orbitofrontal cortex ; 4.6 The amygdala ; 4.7 The cingulate cortex ; 4.8 Human brain imaging investigations of mood and depression ; 4.9 Output pathways for emotional responses ; 4.10 Effects of emotion on cognitive processing and memory ; 4.11 Laterality effects in human emotional processing ; 4.12 Summary ; 5. Hunger ; 5.1 Introduction ; 5.2 Peripheral signals for hunger and satiety ; 5.3 The control signals for hunger and satiety ; 5.4 The brain control of eating and reward ; 5.5 Obesity, bulimia and anorexia ; 5.6 Conclusions on reward, affective responses to food, and the control of appetite ; 6. Thirst ; 6.1 Introduction ; 6.2 Cellular stimuli for drinking ; 6.3 Extracellular thirst stimuli ; 6.4 Control of normal drinking ; 6.5 Reward and satiety signals for drinking ; 6.6 Summary ; 7. Brain-stimulation reward ; 7.1 Introduction ; 7.2 The nature of the reward produced ; 7.3 The location of brain-stimulation reward sites in the brain ; 7.4 The effects of brain lesions on intracranial self-stimulation ; 7.5 The neurophysiology of reward ; 7.6 Some of the properties of brain-stimulation reward ; 7.7 Stimulus-bound motivational behaviour ; 7.8 Conclusions ; 7.9 Apostasis ; 8. Pharmacology of emotion, reward and addiction; the basal ganglia ; 8.1 Introduction ; 8.2 The noradrenergic hypothesis ; 8.3 Dopamine and reward ; 8.4 The basal ganglia ; 8.5 Opiate reward systems, analgesia, and food reward ; 8.6 Pharmacology of depression in relation to brain systems involved in emotion ; 8.7 Pharmacology of anxiety in relation to brain systems involved in emotion ; 8.8 Cannabinoids ; 8.9 Overview of behavioural selection and output systems involved in emotion ; 9. Sexual behaviour, reward and brain function; sexual selection of behaviour ; 9.1 Introduction ; 9.2 Mate selection, attractiveness and love ; 9.3 Parental attachment, care and parent-offspring conflict ; 9.4 Sperm competition ; 9.5 Concealed ovulation and its consequences for sexual behaviour ; 9.6 Sexual selection of sexual and non-sexual behaviour ; 9.7 Individual differences in sexual rewards ; 9.8 The neural reward mechanisms that might mediate some aspects of sexual behaviour ; 9.9 Neural basis of sexual behaviour ; 9.10 Conclusion ; 10. Emotional feelings and consciousness: a theory of consciousness ; 10.1 Introduction ; 10.2 A theory of consciousness ; 10.3 Dual routes to action ; 10.4 Representations ; 10.5 Discussion ; 10.6 Conclusions and comparisons ; 11. Conclusions and broader issues ; 11.1 Conclusions ; 11.2 Decision-making ; 11.3 Emotion and ethics ; 11.4 Emotion and literature ; 11.5 Close ; App A Neural networks and emotion-related learning ; App B Reward reversal in the orbitofrontal cortex - a model