Environment
8th Edition
Published on 8. November 2011
Book
Paperback/Softback
592 pages
978-0-470-94570-4 (ISBN)
Description
Raven, Hassenzahl, and Berg's Environment threads the central themes of Systems and Sustainability throughout the text to help students understand the connection between the core concepts of Environmental Science and their daily lives. The 8th edition features a rich collection of current case studies and in-text examples, highlighting these local and regional issues, and providing students with the science and tools to understand, apply, and think critically about environmental science. In addition to the text, the integrated learning design of WileyPLUS incorporates a wealth of animations, videos, podcasts, and interactive exercises, and gives instructors a powerful tool to assess individual students and the class as a whole.
WileyPLUS sold separately from text.
WileyPLUS sold separately from text.
More details
Edition
8th ed.
Language
English
Place of publication
Chichester
United Kingdom
Publishing group
John Wiley and Sons Ltd
Product notice
Paperback (trade)
Unsewn / adhesive bound
Illustrations
Figures; Maps; Tables, color; Illustrations, color
Dimensions
Height: 274 mm
Width: 221 mm
Thickness: 20 mm
Weight
1247 gr
ISBN-13
978-0-470-94570-4 (9780470945704)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Classification
Other editions
New editions
Peter H. Raven | David M. Ph.D. Hassenzahl | Mary Catherine Hager
Environment
Book
12/2014
Wiley
€295.00
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Additional editions
Peter H. Raven | Linda R. Berg
Environment
Book
12/2011
8th Edition
Wiley
€151.52
Article exhausted; check different version
Previous edition
Peter H. Raven | Linda R. Berg | David M. Hassenzahl
Environment
Book
10/2009
7th Edition
Wiley
€169.00
Article exhausted; check for reprint
Persons
Content
1 Introducing Environmental Science and Sustainability 1
Human Impacts on the Environment 2
Increasing Human Numbers 2
The Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries 4
Population, Resources, and the Environment 4
Types of Resources 4
Resource Consumption 5
The IPAT Model 7
Sustainability 8
Sustainability and the Tragedy of the Commons 9
Global Plans for Sustainable Development 9
Environmental Science 10
Earth Systems and Environmental Science 11
Science as a Process 12
Addressing Environmental Problems 14
Working Together 17
CASE IN POINT Lake Washington 15
2 Environmental Laws, Economics, and Ethics 21
A Brief Environmental History of the United States 22
Protecting Forests 22
Establishing and Protecting National Parks and Monuments 22
Conservation in the Mid-20th Century 23
The Environmental Movement of the Late 20th Century 24
U.S. Environmental Legislation 26
Environmental Policy Since 1970 26
Economics and the Environment 29
Strategies for Pollution Control 31
Critiques of Environmental Economics 32
Natural Resources, the Environment, and National Income Accounts 32
Environmental Justice 35
Environmental Justice and Ethical Issues 35
Mandating Environmental Justice at the Federal Level 36
Environmental Justice at the International Level 36
Environmental Ethics, Values, and Worldviews 36
Human-Centered and Life-Centered Worldviews 37
CASE IN POINT Environmental Problems in Central and Eastern Europe 34
3 Ecosystems and Energy 42
What Is Ecology? 43
The Energy of Life 45
The First Law of Thermodynamics 47
The Second Law of Thermodynamics 47
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 48
The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems 49
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers 49
The Path of Energy Flow: Who Eats Whom in Ecosystems 50
Ecological Pyramids 53
Ecosystem Productivity 54
CASE IN POINT Life Without the Sun 48
CASE IN POINT How Humans Have Affected the Antarctic Food Web 52
4 Ecosystems and the Physical Environment 58
The Cycling of Materials Within Ecosystems 59
The Carbon Cycle 59
The Nitrogen Cycle 61
The Phosphorus Cycle 62
The Sulfur Cycle 64
The Hydrologic Cycle 66
Solar Radiation 67
Temperature Changes with Latitude 68
Temperature Changes with the Seasons 68
The Atmosphere 69
Layers of the Atmosphere 69
Atmospheric Circulation 70
The Global Ocean 72
Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean 72
Vertical Mixing of Ocean Water 73
Ocean Interactions with the Atmosphere 74
Weather and Climate 75
Precipitation 75
Tornadoes 78
Tropical Cyclones 78
Internal Planetary Processes 79
Earthquakes 80
Volcanoes 82
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Recycling Phosphorus From Sewage 64
CASE IN POINT Hurricane Katrina 79
5 Ecosystems and Living Organisms 85
Evolution: How Populations Change Over Time 86
Natural Selection 86
The Modern Synthesis 86
Evolution of Biological Diversity: The Domains and Kingdoms of Life 88
Principles of Population Ecology 89
Population Density 90
How Do Populations Change in Size? 90
Maximum Population Growth 91
Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity 92
Factors That Affect Population Size 93
Reproductive Strategies 94
Survivorship 95
Metapopulations 95
Biological Communities 96
The Ecological Niche 96
Competition 98
Symbiosis 100
Predation 102
Keystone Species 103
Species Richness in a Community 104
Species Richness, Ecosystem Services, and Community Stability 105
Community Development 107
Primary Succession 107
Secondary Succession 108
CASE IN POINT Species Richness in Lake Victoria 106
6 Major Ecosystems of the World 113
Earth's Major Biomes 114
Tundra: Cold Boggy Plains of the Far North 114
Boreal Forests: Conifer Forests of the North 116
Temperate Rain Forests: Lush Temperate Forests 117
Temperate Deciduous Forests: Broad-leaved Trees That Shed Their Leaves 118
Grasslands: Temperate Seas of Grass 118
Chaparral: Thickets of Evergreen Shrubs and Small Trees 119
Deserts: Arid Life Zones 119
Savanna: Tropical Grasslands 121
Tropical Rain Forests: Lush Equatorial Forests 122
Vertical Zonation: The Distribution of Vegetation on Mountains 123
Aquatic Ecosystems 124
Freshwater Ecosystems 124
Estuaries: Where Fresh Water and Salt Water Meet 128
Marine Ecosystems 130
CASE IN POINT The Everglades 128
7 Human Health and Environmental Toxicology 139
Human Health 140
Health Issues in Highly Developed Countries 140
Health Issues in Developing Countries 141
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 141
Environmental Pollution and Disease 143
Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification of Environmental Contaminants 144
Endocrine Disrupters 146
Determining Health Effects of Environmental Pollution 147
Identifying Toxic Substances 147
Children and Chemical Exposure 150
Ecotoxicology: Toxicant Effects on Communities and Ecosystems 151
Decision Making and Uncertainty: Assessment of Risks 153
Risk Information as a Decision Tool 153
Ecological Risk Assessment 156
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Global Polio Eradication 142
CASE IN POINT Influenza Pandemics Past and Future 143
CASE IN POINT The Ocean and Human Health 152
8 The Human Population 160
The Science of Demography 161
Current and Future Population Numbers 161
Human Migration 162
Demographics of Countries 163
Demographic Stages 164
Age Structure 165
Population and Quality of Life 167
Population and Chronic Hunger 167
Economic Effects of Continued Population Growth 168
Reducing the Total Fertility Rate 168
Culture and Fertility 168
The Social and Economic Status of Women 169
Family Planning Services 170
Government Policies and Fertility 171
China and Mexico: Contrasting Population Growth Measures 172
Achieving Population Stabilization 174
CASE IN POINT The Millennium Development Goals 173
MEETING THE CHALLENGE The Poverty Action Lab 174
9 The Urban Environment 179
Population and Urbanization 180
Characteristics of the Urban Population 180
Urbanization Trends 181
The City as an Ecosystem 183
Phoenix, Arizona: Long-Term Study of an Urban Ecosystem 184
Environmental Problems Associated with Urban Areas 184
Environmental Benefits of Urbanization 187
Urban Land Use Planning 187
Transportation and Urban Development 188
Suburban Sprawl 188
Making Cities More Sustainable 189
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Green Architecture 190
CASE IN POINT Curitiba, Brazil 191
10 Energy Consumption 195
Energy Consumption and Policy 196
Energy Consumption 196
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 198
Energy Efficiency 199
Energy Conservation 204
Electricity, Hydrogen, and Energy Storage 205
Electricity 205
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 206
Energy Storage 208
Energy Policy 209
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Saving Energy at Home 202
CASE IN POINT Hydrogen and Electricity for Transportation 207
11 Fossil Fuels 213
Fossil Fuels 214
How Fossil Fuels Formed 214
Fossil Fuels, the Carbon Cycle, and Climate 214
Coal 215
Coal Reserves 216
Coal Mining 216
Safety Problems Associated with Coal 217
Environmental Impacts of the Mining Process 217
Environmental Impacts of Burning Coal 218
Making Coal a Cleaner Fuel 219
Capture and Storage of Carbon from Coal 220
Oil and Natural Gas 221
Exploration for Oil and Natural Gas 223
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas 223
Global Oil Demand and Supply 227
Environmental Impacts of Oil and Natural Gas 227
Synfuels and Other Potential Fossil-Fuel Resources 230
Environmental Impacts of Synfuels 231
CASE IN POINT The Marcellus Shale 225
CASE IN POINT The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 229
12 Renewable Energy and Nuclear Power 235
Direct Solar Energy 236
Heating Buildings and Water 237
Solar Thermal Electric Generation 238
Photovoltaics 239
Indirect Solar Energy 240
Biomass Energy 240
Wind Energy 241
Hydropower 243
Other Indirect Solar Energy 244
Other Renewable Energy Sources 245
Geothermal Energy 245
Tidal Energy 246
Nuclear Power 247
Electricity from Conventional Nuclear Fission 250
Breeder Reactors and Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) for Nuclear Fission 250
Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy 251
Safety Issues at Nuclear Power Plants 253
The Link Between Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Weapons 255
Radioactive Wastes 256
Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants 258
The Future of Nuclear Power 259
Small and Medium-Sized Nuclear Reactors 259
Public and Expert Attitudes toward Nuclear Energy 259
Fusion: Nuclear Energy for the Future 260
CASE IN POINT The Three Gorges Dam 244
CASE IN POINT Yucca Mountain 257
13 Water: A Limited Resource 263
The Importance of Water 264
Properties of Water 264
The Hydrologic Cycle and Our Supply of Fresh Water 265
Water Use and Resource Problems 267
Too Much Water 267
Too Little Water 269
Water Problems in the United States and Canada 270
Surface Water 271
Groundwater 273
Global Water Problems 274
Water and Climate Change 275
Drinking-Water Problems 275
Population Growth and Water Problems 275
Sharing Water Resources Among Countries 276
Water Management 278
Providing a Sustainable Water Supply 278
Water Conservation 281
Reducing Agricultural Water Waste 281
Reducing Industrial Water Waste 282
Reducing Municipal Water Waste 282
CASE IN POINT The Floods of 2008 268
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Conserving Water at Home 283
14 Soil Resources 287
The Soil System 288
State Factors: Soil-Forming Factors 288
Soil Composition 288
Soil Horizons 290
Soil Organisms 290
Nutrient Cycling 291
Soil Properties and Major Soil Types 292
Soil Acidity 293
Major Soil Groups 294
Environmental Problems Related to Soil 295
Soil Erosion 295
Nutrient Mineral Depletion 297
Soil Salinization 298
Desertification 298
Soil Conservation and Regeneration 299
Conservation Tillage 299
Crop Rotation 300
Contour Plowing, Strip Cropping, and Terracing 300
Preserving Soil Fertility 300
Soil Reclamation 301
Agroforestry 302
Soil Conservation Policies in the United States 303
CASE IN POINT The American Dust Bowl 296
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Composting and Mulching 302
15 Mineral Resources 306
Introduction to Minerals 307
Mineral Distribution and Formation 307
How Minerals are Found, Extracted, and Processed 308
Environmental Impacts Associated with Minerals 311
Mining and The Environment 311
Environmental Impacts of Refining Minerals 312
Restoration of Mining Lands 314
Minerals: An International Perspective 315
Worldwide Mineral Consumption 315
Mineral Distribution Versus Consumption 316
Will We Run Out of Important Minerals? 316
Increasing the Supply of Minerals 317
Locating and Mining New Deposits 317
Minerals in Antarctica 317
Minerals from the Ocean 318
Advanced Mining and Processing Technologies 319
Using Substitution and Conservation to Expand Mineral Supplies 319
Finding Mineral Substitutes 319
Mineral Conservation 320
CASE IN POINT Copper Basin, Tennessee 313
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Industrial Ecosystems 322
16 Biological Resources 325
Biological Diversity 326
Why We Need Organisms 326
Extinction and Species Endangerment 328
Endangered and Threatened Species 329
Where is Declining Biological Diversity the Greatest Problem? 331
Human Causes of Species Endangerment 332
Conservation Biology 337
In Situ Conservation: Protecting Habitats 337
Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats 338
Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks 338
Conservation Organizations 341
Conservation Policies and Laws 342
Habitat Conservation Plans 343
International Conservation Policies and Laws 343
Wildlife Management 343
Management of Migratory Animals 344
Management of Aquatic Organisms 344
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Addressing Declining Biological Diversity 330
CASE IN POINT Disappearing Frogs 336
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Dealing Effectively with Fragmented Habitats 340
17 Land Resources 348
Land Use 349
World Land Use 349
Land Use in the United States 349
Wilderness, Parks, and Wildlife Refuges 351
National Parks 352
Wildlife Refuges 353
Forests 353
Forest Management 354
Deforestation 355
Forest Trends in the United States 357
Trends in Tropical Forests 359
Boreal Forests and Deforestation 361
Rangelands and Agricultural Lands 361
Rangeland Degradation and Desertification 362
Rangeland Trends in the United States 362
Agricultural Lands 363
Wetlands and Coastal Areas 363
Coastlines 365
Conservation of Land Resources 366
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Preserving Forests in the Eastern
States 357
CASE IN POINT Tongass National Forest 358
18 Food Resources 370
World Food Security 371
Famines 371
Maintaining Grain Stocks 371
Economic and Political Effects on Food Security 372
Poverty and Food 372
Food Production 373
The Main Types of Agriculture 375
Challenges of Producing More Crops and Livestock 376
The Effect of Domestication on Genetic Diversity 376
Increasing Crop Yields 377
Increasing Livestock Yields 378
The Gene Revolution 379
The Environmental Impacts of Agriculture 381
Cultivating Marginal Lands 383
Solutions to Agricultural Problems 383
Sustainable Agriculture 383
Making Subsistence Agriculture Sustainable and More
Productive 384
Fisheries of the World 386
Problems and Challenges for the Fishing Industry 386
Ocean Pollution and Deteriorating Habitat 387
Aquaculture: Fish Farming 388
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Vegetarian Diets 374
CASE IN POINT The Green Revolution 377
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Certified Environmental Management Systems for Agriculture 385
19 Air Pollution 392
The Atmosphere as a Resource 393
Types and Sources of Air Pollution 393
Major Classes of Air Pollutants 393
Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution 395
Urban Air Pollution 397
Effects of Air Pollution 399
Air Pollution and Human Health 399
Controlling Air Pollution in the United States 400
Controlling Air Pollutants 400
The Clean Air Act 403
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere 404
The Causes of Ozone Depletion 405
The Effects of Ozone Depletion 405
Facilitating the Recovery of the Ozone Layer 406
Acid Deposition 407
Measuring Acidity 407
How Acid Deposition Develops 407
The Effects of Acid Deposition 407
The Politics of Acid Deposition 408
Facilitating Recovery from Acid Deposition 410
Air Pollution Around the World 410
Long-Distance Transport of Air Pollution 412
Indoor Air Pollution 413
Controlling Indoor Air Pollution 414
Indoor Tobacco Smoke 414
Radon 415
CASE IN POINT Efforts to Reduce Ozone In Southern California 397
MEETING THE CHALLENGE States Adopt Low Carbon Fuel Standard 402
CASE IN POINT Air Pollution In Beijing And Mexico City 411
20 Global Climate Change 419
Introduction to Climate Change 420
The Causes of Global Climate Change 420
Pollutants That Cool the Atmosphere 422
Developing and Using Climate Models 423
Unpredictable and Extreme Climate Change 423
The Effects of Global Climate Change 425
Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels 425
Changes in Precipitation Patterns 427
Effects on Organisms 427
Effects on Human Health 429
Effects on Agriculture 429
International Implications of Global Climate Change 431
Links among Global Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Acid Deposition 432
Dealing with Global Climate Change 432
Mitigation of Global Climate Change 433
Adaptation to Global Climate Change 434
International Efforts to Reduce Greenhouse Gas
Emissions 434
CASE IN POINT Impacts In Fragile Areas 426
21 Water Pollution 437
Types of Water Pollution 438
Sewage 438
Disease-Causing Agents 439
Sediment Pollution 441
Inorganic Plant and Algal Nutrients 441
Organic Compounds 443
Inorganic Chemicals 444
Radioactive Substances 445
Thermal Pollution 446
Water Quality Today 446
Water Pollution from Agriculture 447
Municipal Water Pollution 447
Industrial Wastes in Water 448
Groundwater Pollution 450
Water Pollution in Other Countries 451
Improving Water Quality 453
Purification of Drinking Water 453
Municipal Sewage Treatment 454
Individual Septic Systems 456
Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems 456
Laws Controlling Water Pollution 457
Safe Drinking Water Act 457
Clean Water Act 458
Laws that Protect Groundwater 459
CASE IN POINT Green Chemistry 448
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Preventing Water Pollution 450
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Using Citizen Watchdogs to Monitor Water Pollution 458
22 Pest Management 462
What Is a Pesticide? 463
First-Generation and Second-Generation Pesticides 463
The Major Groups of Insecticides 463
The Major Kinds of Herbicides 464
Benefits and Problems with Pesticides 464
Benefit: Disease Control 465
Benefit: Crop Protection 465
Problem: Evolution of Genetic Resistance 465
Problem: Imbalances in the Ecosystem 467
Problems: Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological
Magnification 468
Problem: Mobility in the Environment 468
Risks of Pesticides to Human Health 469
Short-Term Effects of Pesticides 469
Long-Term Effects of Pesticides 469
Pesticides as Endocrine Disrupters 470
Alternatives to Pesticides 470
Using Cultivation Methods to Control Pests 470
Biological Controls 471
Pheromones and Hormones 472
Reproductive Controls 472
Genetic Controls 472
Quarantine 473
The Systems Approach: Integrated Pest Management 473
Irradiating Foods 474
Laws Controlling Pesticide Use 476
Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 476
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 476
Food Quality Protection Act 477
The Manufacture and Use of Banned Pesticide 477
The Importation of Food Tainted With Banned Pesticides 477
The Global Ban on Persistent Organic Pollutants 477
CASE IN POINT Bt, its Potential and Problems 473
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Avoiding Pesticide use at Home 475
CASE IN POINT Economic Development and Pesticides in Central America 478
23 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 481
Solid Waste 482
Types of Solid Waste 482
Open Dumps 482
Sanitary Landfills 483
Incineration 485
Composting 486
Waste Prevention 487
Reducing the Amount of Waste: Source Reduction 488
Reusing Products 488
Recycling Materials 489
Integrated Waste Management 491
Hazardous Waste 492
Types of Hazardous Waste 492
Management of Hazardous Waste 495
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Reusing and Recycling Old Automobiles 488
CASE IN POINT Hanford Nuclear Reservation 494
24 Tomorrow's World 501
Living Sustainably 502
Sustainable Living: A Plan of Action 503
Recommendation 1: Eliminating Poverty and Stabilizing the Human Population 503
Recommendation 2: Protecting and Restoring Earth's Resources 506
Recommendation 3: Providing Adequate Food for all People 509
Recommendation 4: Mitigating Climate Change 510
Recommendation 5: Designing Sustainable Cities 511
Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices 513
The Role of Education 513
What Kind of World Do We Want? 514
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Microcredit Programs 504
CASE IN POINT Jakarta, Indonesia 511
APPENDICES
I Review of Basic Chemistry A-1
II Graphing A-6
III Models and Modeling A-8
IV Units of Measure: Some Useful Conversions A-10
V Abbreviations, Formulas, and Acronyms Used in This Text A-11
GLOSSARY G-1
INDEX I-1
Human Impacts on the Environment 2
Increasing Human Numbers 2
The Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries 4
Population, Resources, and the Environment 4
Types of Resources 4
Resource Consumption 5
The IPAT Model 7
Sustainability 8
Sustainability and the Tragedy of the Commons 9
Global Plans for Sustainable Development 9
Environmental Science 10
Earth Systems and Environmental Science 11
Science as a Process 12
Addressing Environmental Problems 14
Working Together 17
CASE IN POINT Lake Washington 15
2 Environmental Laws, Economics, and Ethics 21
A Brief Environmental History of the United States 22
Protecting Forests 22
Establishing and Protecting National Parks and Monuments 22
Conservation in the Mid-20th Century 23
The Environmental Movement of the Late 20th Century 24
U.S. Environmental Legislation 26
Environmental Policy Since 1970 26
Economics and the Environment 29
Strategies for Pollution Control 31
Critiques of Environmental Economics 32
Natural Resources, the Environment, and National Income Accounts 32
Environmental Justice 35
Environmental Justice and Ethical Issues 35
Mandating Environmental Justice at the Federal Level 36
Environmental Justice at the International Level 36
Environmental Ethics, Values, and Worldviews 36
Human-Centered and Life-Centered Worldviews 37
CASE IN POINT Environmental Problems in Central and Eastern Europe 34
3 Ecosystems and Energy 42
What Is Ecology? 43
The Energy of Life 45
The First Law of Thermodynamics 47
The Second Law of Thermodynamics 47
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 48
The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems 49
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers 49
The Path of Energy Flow: Who Eats Whom in Ecosystems 50
Ecological Pyramids 53
Ecosystem Productivity 54
CASE IN POINT Life Without the Sun 48
CASE IN POINT How Humans Have Affected the Antarctic Food Web 52
4 Ecosystems and the Physical Environment 58
The Cycling of Materials Within Ecosystems 59
The Carbon Cycle 59
The Nitrogen Cycle 61
The Phosphorus Cycle 62
The Sulfur Cycle 64
The Hydrologic Cycle 66
Solar Radiation 67
Temperature Changes with Latitude 68
Temperature Changes with the Seasons 68
The Atmosphere 69
Layers of the Atmosphere 69
Atmospheric Circulation 70
The Global Ocean 72
Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean 72
Vertical Mixing of Ocean Water 73
Ocean Interactions with the Atmosphere 74
Weather and Climate 75
Precipitation 75
Tornadoes 78
Tropical Cyclones 78
Internal Planetary Processes 79
Earthquakes 80
Volcanoes 82
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Recycling Phosphorus From Sewage 64
CASE IN POINT Hurricane Katrina 79
5 Ecosystems and Living Organisms 85
Evolution: How Populations Change Over Time 86
Natural Selection 86
The Modern Synthesis 86
Evolution of Biological Diversity: The Domains and Kingdoms of Life 88
Principles of Population Ecology 89
Population Density 90
How Do Populations Change in Size? 90
Maximum Population Growth 91
Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity 92
Factors That Affect Population Size 93
Reproductive Strategies 94
Survivorship 95
Metapopulations 95
Biological Communities 96
The Ecological Niche 96
Competition 98
Symbiosis 100
Predation 102
Keystone Species 103
Species Richness in a Community 104
Species Richness, Ecosystem Services, and Community Stability 105
Community Development 107
Primary Succession 107
Secondary Succession 108
CASE IN POINT Species Richness in Lake Victoria 106
6 Major Ecosystems of the World 113
Earth's Major Biomes 114
Tundra: Cold Boggy Plains of the Far North 114
Boreal Forests: Conifer Forests of the North 116
Temperate Rain Forests: Lush Temperate Forests 117
Temperate Deciduous Forests: Broad-leaved Trees That Shed Their Leaves 118
Grasslands: Temperate Seas of Grass 118
Chaparral: Thickets of Evergreen Shrubs and Small Trees 119
Deserts: Arid Life Zones 119
Savanna: Tropical Grasslands 121
Tropical Rain Forests: Lush Equatorial Forests 122
Vertical Zonation: The Distribution of Vegetation on Mountains 123
Aquatic Ecosystems 124
Freshwater Ecosystems 124
Estuaries: Where Fresh Water and Salt Water Meet 128
Marine Ecosystems 130
CASE IN POINT The Everglades 128
7 Human Health and Environmental Toxicology 139
Human Health 140
Health Issues in Highly Developed Countries 140
Health Issues in Developing Countries 141
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 141
Environmental Pollution and Disease 143
Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification of Environmental Contaminants 144
Endocrine Disrupters 146
Determining Health Effects of Environmental Pollution 147
Identifying Toxic Substances 147
Children and Chemical Exposure 150
Ecotoxicology: Toxicant Effects on Communities and Ecosystems 151
Decision Making and Uncertainty: Assessment of Risks 153
Risk Information as a Decision Tool 153
Ecological Risk Assessment 156
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Global Polio Eradication 142
CASE IN POINT Influenza Pandemics Past and Future 143
CASE IN POINT The Ocean and Human Health 152
8 The Human Population 160
The Science of Demography 161
Current and Future Population Numbers 161
Human Migration 162
Demographics of Countries 163
Demographic Stages 164
Age Structure 165
Population and Quality of Life 167
Population and Chronic Hunger 167
Economic Effects of Continued Population Growth 168
Reducing the Total Fertility Rate 168
Culture and Fertility 168
The Social and Economic Status of Women 169
Family Planning Services 170
Government Policies and Fertility 171
China and Mexico: Contrasting Population Growth Measures 172
Achieving Population Stabilization 174
CASE IN POINT The Millennium Development Goals 173
MEETING THE CHALLENGE The Poverty Action Lab 174
9 The Urban Environment 179
Population and Urbanization 180
Characteristics of the Urban Population 180
Urbanization Trends 181
The City as an Ecosystem 183
Phoenix, Arizona: Long-Term Study of an Urban Ecosystem 184
Environmental Problems Associated with Urban Areas 184
Environmental Benefits of Urbanization 187
Urban Land Use Planning 187
Transportation and Urban Development 188
Suburban Sprawl 188
Making Cities More Sustainable 189
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Green Architecture 190
CASE IN POINT Curitiba, Brazil 191
10 Energy Consumption 195
Energy Consumption and Policy 196
Energy Consumption 196
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 198
Energy Efficiency 199
Energy Conservation 204
Electricity, Hydrogen, and Energy Storage 205
Electricity 205
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 206
Energy Storage 208
Energy Policy 209
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Saving Energy at Home 202
CASE IN POINT Hydrogen and Electricity for Transportation 207
11 Fossil Fuels 213
Fossil Fuels 214
How Fossil Fuels Formed 214
Fossil Fuels, the Carbon Cycle, and Climate 214
Coal 215
Coal Reserves 216
Coal Mining 216
Safety Problems Associated with Coal 217
Environmental Impacts of the Mining Process 217
Environmental Impacts of Burning Coal 218
Making Coal a Cleaner Fuel 219
Capture and Storage of Carbon from Coal 220
Oil and Natural Gas 221
Exploration for Oil and Natural Gas 223
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas 223
Global Oil Demand and Supply 227
Environmental Impacts of Oil and Natural Gas 227
Synfuels and Other Potential Fossil-Fuel Resources 230
Environmental Impacts of Synfuels 231
CASE IN POINT The Marcellus Shale 225
CASE IN POINT The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 229
12 Renewable Energy and Nuclear Power 235
Direct Solar Energy 236
Heating Buildings and Water 237
Solar Thermal Electric Generation 238
Photovoltaics 239
Indirect Solar Energy 240
Biomass Energy 240
Wind Energy 241
Hydropower 243
Other Indirect Solar Energy 244
Other Renewable Energy Sources 245
Geothermal Energy 245
Tidal Energy 246
Nuclear Power 247
Electricity from Conventional Nuclear Fission 250
Breeder Reactors and Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) for Nuclear Fission 250
Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy 251
Safety Issues at Nuclear Power Plants 253
The Link Between Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Weapons 255
Radioactive Wastes 256
Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants 258
The Future of Nuclear Power 259
Small and Medium-Sized Nuclear Reactors 259
Public and Expert Attitudes toward Nuclear Energy 259
Fusion: Nuclear Energy for the Future 260
CASE IN POINT The Three Gorges Dam 244
CASE IN POINT Yucca Mountain 257
13 Water: A Limited Resource 263
The Importance of Water 264
Properties of Water 264
The Hydrologic Cycle and Our Supply of Fresh Water 265
Water Use and Resource Problems 267
Too Much Water 267
Too Little Water 269
Water Problems in the United States and Canada 270
Surface Water 271
Groundwater 273
Global Water Problems 274
Water and Climate Change 275
Drinking-Water Problems 275
Population Growth and Water Problems 275
Sharing Water Resources Among Countries 276
Water Management 278
Providing a Sustainable Water Supply 278
Water Conservation 281
Reducing Agricultural Water Waste 281
Reducing Industrial Water Waste 282
Reducing Municipal Water Waste 282
CASE IN POINT The Floods of 2008 268
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Conserving Water at Home 283
14 Soil Resources 287
The Soil System 288
State Factors: Soil-Forming Factors 288
Soil Composition 288
Soil Horizons 290
Soil Organisms 290
Nutrient Cycling 291
Soil Properties and Major Soil Types 292
Soil Acidity 293
Major Soil Groups 294
Environmental Problems Related to Soil 295
Soil Erosion 295
Nutrient Mineral Depletion 297
Soil Salinization 298
Desertification 298
Soil Conservation and Regeneration 299
Conservation Tillage 299
Crop Rotation 300
Contour Plowing, Strip Cropping, and Terracing 300
Preserving Soil Fertility 300
Soil Reclamation 301
Agroforestry 302
Soil Conservation Policies in the United States 303
CASE IN POINT The American Dust Bowl 296
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Composting and Mulching 302
15 Mineral Resources 306
Introduction to Minerals 307
Mineral Distribution and Formation 307
How Minerals are Found, Extracted, and Processed 308
Environmental Impacts Associated with Minerals 311
Mining and The Environment 311
Environmental Impacts of Refining Minerals 312
Restoration of Mining Lands 314
Minerals: An International Perspective 315
Worldwide Mineral Consumption 315
Mineral Distribution Versus Consumption 316
Will We Run Out of Important Minerals? 316
Increasing the Supply of Minerals 317
Locating and Mining New Deposits 317
Minerals in Antarctica 317
Minerals from the Ocean 318
Advanced Mining and Processing Technologies 319
Using Substitution and Conservation to Expand Mineral Supplies 319
Finding Mineral Substitutes 319
Mineral Conservation 320
CASE IN POINT Copper Basin, Tennessee 313
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Industrial Ecosystems 322
16 Biological Resources 325
Biological Diversity 326
Why We Need Organisms 326
Extinction and Species Endangerment 328
Endangered and Threatened Species 329
Where is Declining Biological Diversity the Greatest Problem? 331
Human Causes of Species Endangerment 332
Conservation Biology 337
In Situ Conservation: Protecting Habitats 337
Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats 338
Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks 338
Conservation Organizations 341
Conservation Policies and Laws 342
Habitat Conservation Plans 343
International Conservation Policies and Laws 343
Wildlife Management 343
Management of Migratory Animals 344
Management of Aquatic Organisms 344
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Addressing Declining Biological Diversity 330
CASE IN POINT Disappearing Frogs 336
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Dealing Effectively with Fragmented Habitats 340
17 Land Resources 348
Land Use 349
World Land Use 349
Land Use in the United States 349
Wilderness, Parks, and Wildlife Refuges 351
National Parks 352
Wildlife Refuges 353
Forests 353
Forest Management 354
Deforestation 355
Forest Trends in the United States 357
Trends in Tropical Forests 359
Boreal Forests and Deforestation 361
Rangelands and Agricultural Lands 361
Rangeland Degradation and Desertification 362
Rangeland Trends in the United States 362
Agricultural Lands 363
Wetlands and Coastal Areas 363
Coastlines 365
Conservation of Land Resources 366
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Preserving Forests in the Eastern
States 357
CASE IN POINT Tongass National Forest 358
18 Food Resources 370
World Food Security 371
Famines 371
Maintaining Grain Stocks 371
Economic and Political Effects on Food Security 372
Poverty and Food 372
Food Production 373
The Main Types of Agriculture 375
Challenges of Producing More Crops and Livestock 376
The Effect of Domestication on Genetic Diversity 376
Increasing Crop Yields 377
Increasing Livestock Yields 378
The Gene Revolution 379
The Environmental Impacts of Agriculture 381
Cultivating Marginal Lands 383
Solutions to Agricultural Problems 383
Sustainable Agriculture 383
Making Subsistence Agriculture Sustainable and More
Productive 384
Fisheries of the World 386
Problems and Challenges for the Fishing Industry 386
Ocean Pollution and Deteriorating Habitat 387
Aquaculture: Fish Farming 388
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Vegetarian Diets 374
CASE IN POINT The Green Revolution 377
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Certified Environmental Management Systems for Agriculture 385
19 Air Pollution 392
The Atmosphere as a Resource 393
Types and Sources of Air Pollution 393
Major Classes of Air Pollutants 393
Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution 395
Urban Air Pollution 397
Effects of Air Pollution 399
Air Pollution and Human Health 399
Controlling Air Pollution in the United States 400
Controlling Air Pollutants 400
The Clean Air Act 403
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere 404
The Causes of Ozone Depletion 405
The Effects of Ozone Depletion 405
Facilitating the Recovery of the Ozone Layer 406
Acid Deposition 407
Measuring Acidity 407
How Acid Deposition Develops 407
The Effects of Acid Deposition 407
The Politics of Acid Deposition 408
Facilitating Recovery from Acid Deposition 410
Air Pollution Around the World 410
Long-Distance Transport of Air Pollution 412
Indoor Air Pollution 413
Controlling Indoor Air Pollution 414
Indoor Tobacco Smoke 414
Radon 415
CASE IN POINT Efforts to Reduce Ozone In Southern California 397
MEETING THE CHALLENGE States Adopt Low Carbon Fuel Standard 402
CASE IN POINT Air Pollution In Beijing And Mexico City 411
20 Global Climate Change 419
Introduction to Climate Change 420
The Causes of Global Climate Change 420
Pollutants That Cool the Atmosphere 422
Developing and Using Climate Models 423
Unpredictable and Extreme Climate Change 423
The Effects of Global Climate Change 425
Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels 425
Changes in Precipitation Patterns 427
Effects on Organisms 427
Effects on Human Health 429
Effects on Agriculture 429
International Implications of Global Climate Change 431
Links among Global Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Acid Deposition 432
Dealing with Global Climate Change 432
Mitigation of Global Climate Change 433
Adaptation to Global Climate Change 434
International Efforts to Reduce Greenhouse Gas
Emissions 434
CASE IN POINT Impacts In Fragile Areas 426
21 Water Pollution 437
Types of Water Pollution 438
Sewage 438
Disease-Causing Agents 439
Sediment Pollution 441
Inorganic Plant and Algal Nutrients 441
Organic Compounds 443
Inorganic Chemicals 444
Radioactive Substances 445
Thermal Pollution 446
Water Quality Today 446
Water Pollution from Agriculture 447
Municipal Water Pollution 447
Industrial Wastes in Water 448
Groundwater Pollution 450
Water Pollution in Other Countries 451
Improving Water Quality 453
Purification of Drinking Water 453
Municipal Sewage Treatment 454
Individual Septic Systems 456
Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems 456
Laws Controlling Water Pollution 457
Safe Drinking Water Act 457
Clean Water Act 458
Laws that Protect Groundwater 459
CASE IN POINT Green Chemistry 448
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Preventing Water Pollution 450
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Using Citizen Watchdogs to Monitor Water Pollution 458
22 Pest Management 462
What Is a Pesticide? 463
First-Generation and Second-Generation Pesticides 463
The Major Groups of Insecticides 463
The Major Kinds of Herbicides 464
Benefits and Problems with Pesticides 464
Benefit: Disease Control 465
Benefit: Crop Protection 465
Problem: Evolution of Genetic Resistance 465
Problem: Imbalances in the Ecosystem 467
Problems: Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological
Magnification 468
Problem: Mobility in the Environment 468
Risks of Pesticides to Human Health 469
Short-Term Effects of Pesticides 469
Long-Term Effects of Pesticides 469
Pesticides as Endocrine Disrupters 470
Alternatives to Pesticides 470
Using Cultivation Methods to Control Pests 470
Biological Controls 471
Pheromones and Hormones 472
Reproductive Controls 472
Genetic Controls 472
Quarantine 473
The Systems Approach: Integrated Pest Management 473
Irradiating Foods 474
Laws Controlling Pesticide Use 476
Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 476
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 476
Food Quality Protection Act 477
The Manufacture and Use of Banned Pesticide 477
The Importation of Food Tainted With Banned Pesticides 477
The Global Ban on Persistent Organic Pollutants 477
CASE IN POINT Bt, its Potential and Problems 473
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE Avoiding Pesticide use at Home 475
CASE IN POINT Economic Development and Pesticides in Central America 478
23 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 481
Solid Waste 482
Types of Solid Waste 482
Open Dumps 482
Sanitary Landfills 483
Incineration 485
Composting 486
Waste Prevention 487
Reducing the Amount of Waste: Source Reduction 488
Reusing Products 488
Recycling Materials 489
Integrated Waste Management 491
Hazardous Waste 492
Types of Hazardous Waste 492
Management of Hazardous Waste 495
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Reusing and Recycling Old Automobiles 488
CASE IN POINT Hanford Nuclear Reservation 494
24 Tomorrow's World 501
Living Sustainably 502
Sustainable Living: A Plan of Action 503
Recommendation 1: Eliminating Poverty and Stabilizing the Human Population 503
Recommendation 2: Protecting and Restoring Earth's Resources 506
Recommendation 3: Providing Adequate Food for all People 509
Recommendation 4: Mitigating Climate Change 510
Recommendation 5: Designing Sustainable Cities 511
Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices 513
The Role of Education 513
What Kind of World Do We Want? 514
MEETING THE CHALLENGE Microcredit Programs 504
CASE IN POINT Jakarta, Indonesia 511
APPENDICES
I Review of Basic Chemistry A-1
II Graphing A-6
III Models and Modeling A-8
IV Units of Measure: Some Useful Conversions A-10
V Abbreviations, Formulas, and Acronyms Used in This Text A-11
GLOSSARY G-1
INDEX I-1