Design for Reliability

Contributors xiii Foreword xv Preface xvii Introduction: What You Will Learn xix 1 Design for Reliability Paradigms 1 Dev Raheja Why Design for Reliability? 1 Reflections on the Current State of the Art 2 The Paradigms for Design for Reliability 4 Summary 13 References 13 2 Reliability Design Tools 15 Joseph A. Childs Introduction 15 Reliability Tools 19 Test Data Analysis 31 Summary 34 References 35 3 Developing Reliable Software 37 Samuel Keene Introduction and Background 37 Software Reliability: Definitions and Basic Concepts 40 Software Reliability Design Considerations 44 Operational Reliability Requires Effective Change Management 48 Execution-Time Software Reliability Models 48 Software Reliability Prediction Tools Prior to Testing 49 References 51 4 Reliability Models 53 Louis J. Gullo Introduction 53 Reliability Block Diagram: System Modeling 56 Example of System Reliability Models Using RBDs 57 Reliability Growth Model 60 Similarity Analysis and Categories of a Physical Model 60 Monte Carlo Models 62 Markov Models 62 References 64 5 Design Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 67 Louis J. Gullo Introduction to FMEA and FMECA 67 Design FMECA 68 Principles of FMECA-MA 71 Design FMECA Approaches 72 Example of a Design FMECA Process 74 Risk Priority Number 82 Final Thoughts 86 References 86 6 Process Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 87 Joseph A. Childs Introduction 87 Principles of P-FMECA 87 Use of P-FMECA 88 What Is Required Before Starting 90 Performing P-FMECA Step by Step 91 Improvement Actions 98 Reporting Results 100 Suggestions for Additional Reading 101 7 FMECA Applied to Software Development 103 Robert W. Stoddard Introduction 103 Scoping an FMECA for Software Development 104 FMECA Steps for Software Development 106 Important Notes on Roles and Responsibilities with Software FMECA 116 Lessons Learned from Conducting Software FMECA 117 Conclusions 119 References 120 8 Six Sigma Approach to Requirements Development 121 Samuel Keene Early Experiences with Design of Experiments 121 Six Sigma Foundations 124 The Six Sigma Three-Pronged Initiative 126 The RASCI Tool 128 Design for Six Sigma 129 Requirements Development: The Principal Challenge to System Reliability 130 The GQM Tool 131 The Mind Mapping Tool 132 References 135 9 Human Factors in Reliable Design 137 Jack Dixon Human Factors Engineering 137 A Design Engineer's Interest in Human Factors 138 Human-Centered Design 138 Human Factors Analysis Process 144 Human Factors and Risk 150 Human Error 150 Design for Error Tolerance 153 Checklists 154 Testing to Validate Human Factors in Design 154 References 154 10 Stress Analysis During Design to Eliminate Failures 157 Louis J. Gullo Principles of Stress Analysis 157 Mechanical Stress Analysis or Durability Analysis 158 Finite Element Analysis 158 Probabilistic vs. Deterministic Methods and Failures 159 How Stress Analysis Aids Design for Reliability 159 Derating and Stress Analysis 160 Stress vs. Strength Curves 161 Software Stress Analysis and Testing 166 Structural Reinforcement to Improve Structural Integrity 167 References 167 11 Highly Accelerated Life Testing 169 Louis J. Gullo Introduction 169 Time Compression 173 Test Coverage 174 Environmental Stresses of HALT 175 Sensitivity to Stresses 176 Design Margin 178 Sample Size 180 Conclusions 180 Reference 181 12 Design for Extreme Environments 183 Steven S. Austin Overview 183 Designing for Extreme Environments 183 Designing for Cold 184 Designing for Heat 186 References 191 13 Design for Trustworthiness 193 Lawrence Bernstein and C. M. Yuhas Introduction 193 Modules and Components 196 Politics of Reuse 200 Design Principles 201 Design Constraints That Make Systems Trustworthy 204 Conclusions 210 References and Notes 211 14 Prognostics and Health Management Capabilities to Improve Reliability 213 Louis J. Gullo Introduction 213 PHM Is Department of Defense Policy 216 Condition-Based Maintenance vs. Time-Based Maintenance 216 Monitoring and Reasoning of Failure Precursors 217 Monitoring Environmental and Usage Loads for Damage Modeling 218 Fault Detection, Fault Isolation, and Prognostics 218 Sensors for Automatic Stress Monitoring 220 References 221 15 Reliability Management 223 Joseph A. Childs Introduction 223 Planning, Execution, and Documentation 229 Closing the Feedback Loop: Reliability Assessment, Problem Solving, and Growth 232 References 233 16 Risk Management, Exception Handling, and Change Management 235 Jack Dixon Introduction to Risk 235 Importance of Risk Management 236 Why Many Risks Are Overlooked 237 Program Risk 239 Design Risk 241 Risk Assessment 242 Risk Identification 243 Risk Estimation 244 Risk Evaluation 245 Risk Mitigation 247 Risk Communication 248 Risk and Competitiveness 249 Risk Management in the Change Process 249 Configuration Management 249 References 251 17 Integrating Design for Reliability with Design for Safety 253 Brian Moriarty Introduction 253 Start of Safety Design 254 Reliability in System Safety Design 255 Safety Analysis Techniques 255 Establishing Safety Assessment Using the Risk Assessment Code Matrix 260 Design and Development Process for Detailed Safety Design 261 Verification of Design for Safety Includes Reliability 261 Examples of Design for Safety with Reliability Data 262 Final Thoughts 266 References 266 18 Organizational Reliability Capability Assessment 267 Louis J. Gullo Introduction 267 The Benefits of IEEE 1624-2008 269 Organizational Reliability Capability 270 Reliability Capability Assessment 271 Design Capability and Performability 271 IEEE 1624 Scoring Guidelines 276 SEI CMMI Scoring Guidelines 277 Organizational Reliability Capability Assessment Process 278 Advantages of High Reliability 282 Conclusions 283 References 284 Index 285