Modern Gas-Based Temperature and Pressure Measurements

List of Acronyms.- PART I: Temperature measurements in the range from 0.1 K to 300 K.- List of Symbols.- Introduction.- The concept of temperature.- Definitions of temperature.- The phenomenological approach.- The axiomatic approach.- The microscopic approach.- Negative and non-equilibrium thermodynamic temperatures.- Temperature scales.- Thermodynamic temperature.- Empirical temperature.- Semi-empirical scales.- Empirical scales.- Official temperature Scales.- The 'mise en pratique' of the kelvin.- Summary of a temperature scale definition.- Gas-based fixed points for thermometry.- Thermodynamic states versus standard reference materials.- Substances and standard reference materials.- Thermodynamic states and phase diagrams.- Reference points: triple, boiling and critical points.- Physics associated with gas triple points.- Triple point of a pure substance.- Triple point of an impure substance Cryoscopy.- Ideal solutions of solid-insoluble impurities.- Solid-soluble and isotopic impurities.- Eutectic, peritectic and other mixtures .- The realization of temperature fixed points using gas triple points.- Thermal problems in the design of triple point cells.- Vapour-pressure bulb-type cell, used with the dynamic technique.- Small cell with inner thermometer, used with the equilibrium technique .- Hydrostatic temperature gradient.- Chemico-physical problems in triple point realizations.- Purity.- Reactive substances.- Ortho-para composition.- Gas handling systems.- The technique of sealed cell for the realization of a temperature reference.- Cells with vapor-space extending to room temperature.- Totally cold cells.- Modern design of temperature fixed points based on the triple point of gases.- Sealed cells for capsule thermometers.- Single cell design.- Multiple-cell cells.- High enthalpy cells.- Sealed cells for long-stem thermometers.- Fixed points using other phase transitions.- Liquid-to-liquid transition.- Solid-to-solid transitions.- The ITS-90 between13.80 K and 273.16 K and Scale approximations using sealed fixed points.- Realization of the ITS-90 in the Laboratories .- Approximating the ITS-90.- Gaseous Standard Reference Materials and the sealed cells.- Summary of triple-point sealed-cell design criteria.- Summary of sealed-cell fabrication techniques.- Summary of the sealed-cell measurement procedures by step-melting.- Gas thermometry between 0.5 K and 273.16 K.- Constant volume gas thermometry.- Influence of physical parameters.- Virial coefficient.- Amount of 'active' substance.- Gas purity.- Influence of technical parameters.- The gas bulb.- Pressure measuring line.- Filling molar density.- Gas thermometer with built-in pressure measuring device.- Use of a CVGT with a differential cryogenic pressure transducer .- Use of a CVGT with an absolute pressure transducer.- The bulb volume of the gas thermometer.- Interpolating constant-volume gas thermometers.- ICVGT types with stipulation of the virial function.- Three-fixed point ICVGTs.- Two-fixed point ICVGTs.- Four-fixed point ICVGTs.- ICVGT types without stipulations.- Three-fixed point ICVGTs.- Two-fixed point ICVGTs.- Four-fixed point ICVGTs.- Gas thermometer realization.- CVGTs with reference at temperatures lower than 273.16 K.- Measuring bulb.- Pressure capillary.- Pressure measuring system.- Modern realizations.- CVGTs with reference temperature at 273.16 K.- CVGTs using a cryogenic pressure-measuring gauge.- Realizations of interpolating gas thermometers.- Gas thermometry in the ITS-90, and future development.- Dielectric-constant, refractive-index, and acoustic gas thermometers.- Dielectric-constant gas thermometer.- Refractive index gas thermometer.- Acoustic thermometer.- Summary of design criteria for an absolute CVGT in the low temperature range .- Summary of differences and simplifications in design criteria of an ICVGT.- Summary of the measurements procedures for an absolute CVGT in the low temperature range.- Summary of differences and simpl