Comparative Learning and Cognition

About the Authors

Part I: Foundations

Chapter 1: Evolution: A context for comparative learning and cognition

1 Evolution

1.1 Evidence

Molecular evidence

Embryology

Anatomy

Biogeography

Paleontology

Contemporary evidence

Domestication

2 Natural selection and adaptation

2.1 Logic of natural selection

2.2 Natural selection

Field observations and experiments

2.3 Types of direct fitness

Measuring Lifetime Reproductive Success (LRS)

2.4 Natural selection and diversity

Traits contributing to survival

Correlated traits

Direct fitness and adaptation

2.5 From morphology to behavior

2.6 Sexual selection and the brain

3 Diversity of life

3.1 Taxonomy of life

3.2 Animal phyla

3.3 Ediacaran and Cambrian faunas

3.4 Evolution of chordates

3.5 Hominins

Early hominins

Homo

Archaic humans

Early and recent modern humans

4 Evolution of the vertebrate brain and behavior

4.1 Key innovations of vertebrates

4.2 Agnathan brains

4.3 Regions of the vertebrate brain

Spinal cord

Rhombencephalon and mesencephalon

Diencephalon

4.4 Telencephalon

Subdivisions

Fish telencephalon

Striatum

Limbic system

Origin and evolution of the cortex

4.5 Principles of brain size

Selective breeding for brain size

Relative brain size

Comparative and developmental aspects of encephalization

Brain size and intelligence

Behavioral specializations and the brain

Glossary

References

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of stimulus control

1 Properties of a stimulus

1.1 Evolutionary framework

2 Stimulus control

2.1 Response probability

Reflexes

2.2 Response strength

2.3 Associative learning

Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning.

Operant (or instrumental) conditioning

Motivational control of operant behavior

Stimulus control of operant behavior

2.4 Generalization and discrimination

3 Stimulus control over other properties of behavior

3.1 What does the behavior look like?

3.2 When does the behavior occur?

3.3 Where does the behavior occur?

4 The nature of the reinforcer

5 Contiguity, contingency, and relative validity

6 Summing up

Glossary

References

Part II: Learning

Chapter 3: Learning in simple systems

1 Phenomena and mechanisms

1.1 What is a learning phenomenon?

1.2 Levels of mechanistic analysis

1.3 Species similarity in learning phenomena

1.4 Species differences in learning phenomena

2 Invertebrate learning

2.1 Cnidarian neurons

2.2 The nervous systems of bilateral animals

2.3 Properties of habituation

2.4 Habituation in cnidarians

3 Behavioral and neural plasticity in nonassociative learning

3.1 Habituation and dishabituation

3.2 Short-term and long-term habituation

3.3 Neural basis of short-term habituation: C. elegans

3.4 Neural basis of short-term habituation: A. californica

3.5 Neural basis of long-term habituation: C. elegans

3.6 Neural basis of long-term habituation: A. californica

4 Cellular bases of sensitization

4.1 Short-term sensitization

4.2 Dishabituation and short-term sensitization in A. californica

4.3 Long-term sensitization

4.4 Evolution of sensitization in mollusks

4.5 Generality of the neural mechanisms of nonassociative learning

5 Associative learning and cognition in invertebrates

5.1 Associative learning in basal invertebrates

5.2 Associative learning in mollusks

5.3 Associative learning in arthropods

5.4 Learning mutants in fruit flies

5.5 Invertebrate cognition

5.6 Parallel evolution from common cell-molecular mechanisms

6 Behavioral plasticity in aneural organisms

6.1 Some conceptual issues

6.2 Learning in aneural organisms

Bacteria and archaeon

Protists

Plants

Fungi

Basal animal phyla

6.3 What are nervous systems good for?

Glossary

References

Chapter 4: Associative learning: Acquisition

1 Introduction

2 Associative processes

2.1 Contiguity

Contiguity in Pavlovian conditioning

Contiguity in operant conditioning

2.2 Comparative and developmental generality of contiguity

2.3 Learning/performance dichotomy

2.4 What is learned in Pavlovian conditioning?

2.5 What is learned in operant conditioning?

2.6 Hierarchical associations: Occasion setting

2.7 Neurobiology of stimulus contiguity in mammals

Long-term potentiation and depression

From brain slice to behavior

SaS and SaR associations in the brain

3 Acquisition factors

3.1 Beyond contiguity: Salience, magnitude, and temporal factors

3.2 Signalaoutcome relevance

3.3 Signal-context interactions

3.4 Conditioned reinforcement

3.5 Operant contingencies

Positive reinforcement

Punishment

Omission

Escape

Avoidance

4 Inhibitory conditioning

4.1 Summation and retardation tests

Detection issues

Control issues

Reduced generalized excitation

Differential generalization of excitation

Attentional enhancement

Attentional decrement

Contextual blocking

Stimulus generalization decrement

4.2 Neurobiology of inhibitory conditioning

5 Schedules of reinforcement

6 What is a reinforcer?

7 Situational generality of associative learning

7.1 Interoceptive CSs

7.2 Sexual reinforcement

7.3 Conditioned immunomodulation

7.4 Conditioning of allergies

7.5 Drug tolerance

Glossary

References

Chapter 5: Associative learning: Integration

1 Introduction

2 Extinction and learning

2.1 Procedure, phenomenon, mechanism

2.2 Unlearning vs. parallel associations

3 Perception and learning

3.1 Compound conditioning

3.2 Overshadowing and blocking effects

3.3 Signal-context interactions

4 Attention and learning

4.1 Latent inhibition

4.2 Comparative studies of latent inhibition

4.3 Intra- vs. extra-dimensional transfer

4.4 Perceptual learning

5 Motivation and learning

5.1 Incentive value

5.2 Wanting and liking

6 Emotion and learning

6.1 Fear/threat

6.2 Neurobiology of fear

Signal and contextual fear

Fear extinction

Consolidation and reconsolidation of fear memories

6.3 Frustration

Aftereffects

Anticipatory effects

Comparative and developmental studies

6.4 Frustration, memory update, and emotional activation

6.5 Neurobiology of fear and frustration in vertebrates

7 Choice and learning

7.1 Matching

7.2 Matching and drug dependence

7.3 Undermatching, overmatching, and maximizing

7.4 Delay discounting

Glossary

References

Chapter 6: Associative learning: Interactions

1 Introduction

2 Interactions between elicited and reinforced behaviors

2.1 Equipotentiality

2.2 Misbehavior

2.3 Adjunctive behavior

Brain mechanisms of schedule-induced polydipsia

2.4 A defensive response system

3 Escape and avoidance learning

3.1 Avoidance conditioning

3.2 Escape conditioning

3.3 Neurobiology of avoidance learning

3.4 Learned helplessness

4 Impulsivity and self-control

4.1 The marshmallow test

4.2 Self-control in other animals

4.3 Substance-use disorders and impulsivity

4.4 Neurobiology of substance use disorders

Reward circuitry

Withdrawal symptoms and circuitry

5 Pavlovian control of operant behavior

5.1 Conditioned suppression of operant behavior

5.2 Pavlovian-instrumental transfer

General and specific transfer

Neurobiology of PIT

Relevance of PIT

Glossary

References

Chapter 7: Social learning

1 Introduction

2 From individual to social learning

2.1 Individual recognition

2.2 Kin recognition

2.3 Feeding and social learning

2.4 Predator recognition

2.5 Social reinforcement

2.6 From social reinforcement to reproductive success

2.7 Imitation

3 Imprinting in precocial birds

3.1 Properties

3.2 Motivational factors

3.3 Learning factors

3.4 Neurobiology of imprinting

3.5 Sexual imprinting

3.6 Imprinting-like phenomena in other species

4 Early social learning

4.1 Attachment

4.2 Attachment in primates

4.3 Early social restriction

5 Tool use and culture

6 Teaching

Glossary

References

Part III: Cognition

Chapter 8: Timing behavior

1 Introduction: Cognition

2 Circadian Timing

2.1 Behavioral evidence

2.2 Neurobiology of circadian rhythms

3 Interval Timing

3.1 Scalar timing theory

Time-production tasks

Time-perception tasks

3.2 Oscillators and nonlinear timing

3.3 Time as a stimulus property

Acquisition

Extinction

Postextinction relapse of the CR

Cue competition and integration based on timing

4 Where is timing in models of conditioning?

5 Can nonhuman animals time travel?

Glossary

References

Chapter 9: Spatial behavior

1 Introduction: Spatial behavior

2 Migration and large-scale spatial behavior

3 Small-scale navigation

3.1 Path integration

3.2 Beacon homing

3.3 Route behavior

3.4 Map-like spatial behavior

4 Location as a stimulus property

4.1 Acquisition and extinction

4.2 Generalization and discrimination

4.3 Cue competition

5 Spatial integration

6 Where is location in models of conditioning?

7 Neurobiology of spatial behavior

7.1 Insects

7.2 Mammals

Glossary

References

Chapter 10: Categories, concepts, and numerical competence

1 Conceptual behavior

2 Generalization and discrimination revisited

3 Acquired distinctiveness and equivalence

3.1 Procedures

3.2 Stimulus equivalence and emergent relations

3.3 Real-world applications

4 Multiple-exemplar training

4.1 Perceptual categories

Basic level

Subordinate level

Superordinate level

4.2 Relational categories

4.3 Relation between relations

5 Theories and models of conceptual behavior

5.1 Linear feature models

5.2 Exemplar theory

5.3 Prototype theory

5.4 Neurobiology and neural networks

6 Numerical competence

6.1 Approximate numerical magnitude

6.2 Counting

Glossary

References

Chapter 11: Communication and language

1 Animal signals

2 Avian vocal learning

2.1 Calls

2.2 Vocal learning

2.3 Age-dependent plasticity

2.4 Dialects

2.5 Age-independent plasticity

2.6 Brain mechanisms avian song learning

Brain circuit

Patterns of gene expression

2.7 From proximate to ultimate causation

3 Referential calls in mammals

4 Human language

4.2 Properties

4.2 Basic functions

4.3 Verbal operants

Intraverbals, mands, and tacts

5 Teaching language to nonhuman animals

5.1 Brief history

5.2 Language production

Hand gestures

Symbols

5.3 Language comprehension

5.4 Language training in nonprimate species

Glossary

References