Foundations of Chemistry

Chapter 0: Fundamentals 0.1 Measurement in chemistry and science - SI units 0.2 Expressing large and small numbers using scientific notation 0.3 Using metric prefixes 0.3.1 Units of mass and volume used in chemistry 0.4 Significant figures 0.5 Calculations using scientific notation 0.5.1 Adding and subtracting 0.5.2 Multiplying and dividing numbers 0.6 Writing chemical formulae and equations 0.6.1 Writing chemical formulae 0.6.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations 0.6.3 Indicating the physical state of reactants and products in chemical equations Quick-check summary Chapter 1: Atomic Structure 1.1 Atomic Structure 1.1.1 Atomic particles 1.1.2 Mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) 1.1.3 Isotopes 1.1.4 Radioisotopes 1.2 Electronic Structure 1.2.1 The periodic table 1.2.2 Electron energy levels 1.2.3 Simple electronic configurations 1.2.4 Sub-shells and atomic orbitals 1.2.5 Describing electronic configurations 1.2.6 Electronic structures and the periodic table Quick-check summary Chapter 2: Chemical Bonding 2.1 Bonding 2.1.1 Atoms and molecules 2.1.2 Metallic bonding 2.1.3 Ionic bonding 2.1.4 Covalent bonding 2.2 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) 2.2.1 Two electron centres around the central atom: linear molecules 2.2.2 Three electron centres around the central atom: trigonal planar molecules 2.2.3 Four electron centres around the central atom: tetrahedral, pyramidal, bent molecules 2.2.4 Five electron centres around the central atom: trigonal bipyramidal molecules 2.2.5 Six electron centres around the central atom: octahedral molecules 2.3 Polar bonds and polar molecules 2.3.1 Electronegativity 2.3.2 Polar bonds 2.3.3 Polar molecules 2.4 Intermolecular forces 2.4.1 Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions 2.4.2 London dispersion forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole) 2.4.3 Hydrogen bonding 2.4.4 Summary of strengths of intermolecular forces 2.4.5 A special case: ion-dipole intermolecular forces Quick-check summary Chapter 3 Masses of atoms, molecules and reacting substances 3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules 3.1.1 Relative atomic mass, Ar 3.1.2 Relative molecular mass, Mr 3.1.3 Relative formula mass 3.2 Amount of substance 3.2.1 The mole 3.2.2 Converting between moles and masses of substances - Molar mass 3.3 Calculations with moles 3.3.1 Reacting masses 3.3.2 Percentage yield 3.3.3 Percentage composition by mass 3.3.4 Empirical Formula 3.4 Solutions; concentrations and dilutions 3.4.1 Measuring and expressing concentrations 3.4.2 Solutions and dilutions 3.4.3 Alternative units of concentration 3.5 Titration calculations 3.6 Calculations with gas volumes Quick check summary Chapter 4: States of Matter Introduction 4.1 Solids 4.1.1 Metallic lattices 4.1.2 Ionic lattices 4.1.3 Simple molecular solids and giant molecular structures 4.2 Liquids 4.2.1 Evaporation and condensation, vapour pressure and boiling 4.2.2 Effect of intermolecular forces on melting and boiling points 4.3 Gases 4.3.1 Ideal gases 4.3.2 The ideal gas equation 4.3.3 The molar gas volume Quick check summary Chapter 5 Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions 5.1 Redox Reactions 5.1.1 Electron transfer in redox reactions 5.1.2 Oxidation numbers 5.1.3 Naming compounds based on the oxidation state of elements in the compound 5.1.4 Redox half-equations 5.1.5 Oxidising agents and reducing agents 5.2 Disproportionation Reactions 5.3 Redox titrations Quick check summary Chapter 6 Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy 6.1 Enthalpy Changes 6.1.1 Energy and enthalpy 6.1.2 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 6.1.3 Reaction pathway diagrams 6.1.4 Measuring enthalpy changes 6.1.5 Measuring enthalpy changes using calorimetry 6.1.6 Hess's Law 6.1.7 Bond energies and enthalpy changes 6.1.8 Born-Haber cycles 6.1.9 Factors affecting the size of the lattice energy 6.2 Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy 6.2.1 Entropy 6.2.2 Spontaneous processes and the 2nd law of thermodynamics 6.2.3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous reactions Quick-check summary Chapter 7 Chemical Equilibrium and Acid-Base Equilibria Introduction 7.1 Equilibria and reversible reactions 7.1.1 The equilibrium mixture and the equilibrium constant, Kc. 7.1.2 The effects of changing the reaction conditions at equilibrium 7.1.3 Heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibria 7.1.4 The equilibrium constant, Kp 7.2 Acid - base equilibria 7.2.1 The Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases 7.2.2 The pH scale 7.2.3 Strong and weak acids and bases 7.2.4 The ionisation of water 7.2.5 Acid-base reactions 7.2.6 Carrying out a titration 7.2.7 Indicators 7.2.8 Acid-base titrations 7.2.9 Buffers 7.2.10 Calculating the pH of a buffer solution 7.2.11 Lewis acids and bases Quick-check Summary Chapter 8 Chemical Kinetics - The Rates of Chemical Reactions Introduction 8.1 The rate of reaction 8.1.1 Defining the rate of a chemical reaction 8.1.2 Collision theory 8.1.3 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction 8.2 Determining the rate of a chemical reaction 8.2.1 Methods of monitoring the rate 8.2.2 The rate of reaction at any instant 8.2.3 An example of measuring rate of reaction at any time 8.3 The rate expression 8.3.1 Determining the rate expression using instantaneous rates 8.3.2 Determining the rate expression using the initial rates method 8.3.3 Determining the rate expression by inspection 8.3.4 Determining the rate expression using the integrated rate expression. 8.4 The half-life of a reaction 8.4.1 Half-life of first-order reactions 8.4.2 Half-life of zero-order reactions 8.4.3 Half-life of second-order reactions 8.5 Reaction mechanisms 8.5.1 Reaction mechanisms and the rate-determining step 8.5.2 Using the rate expression to determine the mechanism of a reaction 8.6 Effect of temperature on reaction rate 8.6.1 The distribution of the energies of molecules with temperature 8.6.2 The Arrhenius Equation Quick-check Summary Chapter 9 Electrochemistry Introduction 9.1 Redox reactions - a reminder 9.2 Redox reactions and electrochemical cells 9.2.1 Electrochemical cells and half-cells 9.2.2 Standard electrode potentials, Eheta 9.2.3 The standard hydrogen electrode 9.2.4 Values of standard reduction potentials 9.2.5 Half-cells involving non-metals and non-metal ions 9.2.6 The cell diagram 9.2.7 Using Eheta values to obtain voltages of electrochemical cells 9.2.8 Using standard reduction potentials to predict the outcome of redox reactions 9.2.9 Relation between Eheta and Gibbs energy 9.2.10 The effect of non-standard conditions on cell potential - the Nernst equation 9.3 Using redox reactions - Galvanic cells 9.3.1 Galvanic (voltaic) cells 9.3.2 The variety of cells 9.3.3 Disposable batteries 9.3.4 Rechargeable cells 9.3.5 Fuel cells 9.4 Using redox reactions - Electrolytic cells 9.4.1 Electrolysis 9.4.2 Electrolysis of molten substances 9.4.3 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 9.4.4 Calculating the amount of substance deposited during electrolysis Quick-check Summary Chapter 10: Group trends and periodicity 10.1 The Periodic Table: Periods, Groups and Periodicity 10.2 Trends in properties of elements in the same vertical group of the periodic table 10.2.1 Electron configuration 10.2.2 Effective nuclear charge, Zeff 10.2.3 Atomic radius 10.2.4 Ionisation energies 10.2.5 Electronegativity 10.3 Trends in properties of elements in the same horizontal period 10.3.1 Electron configuration 10.3.2 Atomic radius 10.3.3 Ionisation Energy 10.3.4 Electronegativity 10.3.5 Electron affinity , EAHheta 10.3.6 Ionic radius 10.3.7 Melting Point and Boiling Point 10.3.8 Trends in chemical properties across a period Quick check summary Chapter 11: The Periodic Table - chemistry of Groups 1, 2, 7 and transition elements Introduction 11.1 Group 1 - The Alkali Metals 11.1.1. Physical properties of Group 1 elements 11.1.2 Chemical properties of Group 1 elements 11.2 Group 2 - The Alkaline Earth Metals 11.2.1 Physical properties of Group 2 elements 11.2.2 Chemical properties of Group 2 elements 11.2.3 Some s block compounds and their properties 11.3 Group 7 (17) The Halogens 11.3.1 Physical properties of Group 7 (17) elements 11.3.2 Reactions of Group 7 elements 11.4 The Transition Elements 11.4.1 Physical properties of transition elements 11.4.2 Complexes of transition elements 11.4.3 Redox reactions 11.4.4 Origin of colour in transition metal complexes 11.4.5 Isomerism in coordination complexes 11.4.6 Ligand substitution in transition metal complexes Quick Check Summary Chapter 12: Core Concepts and Ideas Within Organic Chemistry 12.1 Types of molecular formula 12.1.1 Empirical and molecular formulae 12.1.2 Skeletal formula 12.1.3 Homologous series 12.2 Nomenclature of simple alkanes 12.2.1 Nomenclature for esters 12.3 Isomers 12.3.1 Chain Isomerism 12.3.2 Positional Isomerism 12.3.3 Functional Group Isomerism 12.3.4 Z and E Isomerism (alkenes only) 12.3.5 Chirality 12.3.6 Summary of Isomerism 12.4 Drawing Reaction Mechanisms 12.4.1 Types of arrows 12.4.2 Electrophiles, nucleophiles and radicals 12.5 Types of reaction 12.5.1 Electrophilic addition (to an alkene) 12.5.2 Nucleophilic addition (to a carbonyl group) 12.5.3 Electrophilic aromatic substitution 12.5.4 Nucleophilic substitution 12.5.5 Elimination 12.5.6 Condensation Quick Check Summary Chapter 13: Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes 13.1 Alkanes: an outline 13.1.1 Alkanes and crude oil 13.1.2 Combustion of alkanes 13.1.3 Cracking alkanes 13.1.4 Reactions of alkanes: radicals 13.2 Alkenes: an outline 13.2.1. Bonding in alkenes 13.2.2 Sigma (sigma) bonding 13.2.3 Pi (pi) bonding 13.2.4 Testing for alkenes 13.2.5 Reaction of alkenes with electrophiles 13.2.6 General reactions of alkenes 13.3 Alkynes: an outline 13.3.1 General reactions of alkynes Quick Check Summary Chapter 14: Reactivity of Selected Homologous Series 14.1 Alcohols 14.1.1 Primary alcohols 14.1.2 Secondary alcohols 14.1.3 Tertiary alcohols 14.1.4 Combustion of alcohols 14.1.5 Oxidation of alcohols 14.2 Aldehydes and ketones 14.2.1 Nucleophilic addition 14.2.2 Tests for aldehydes and ketones 14.3 Carboxylic acids 14.3.1 Preparation and properties of carboxylic acids 14.3.2 Deprotonation of carboxylic acids 14.3.3 Reduction of carboxylic acids 14.4 Esters 14.4.1 Preparation and properties of esters 14.4.2 Hydrolysis of esters 14.5 Amides 14.5.1 Preparation and properties of amides 14.5.2 Hydrolysis of amides 14.6 Amines 14.6.1 Naming amines 14.6.2 Amines as bases 14.6.3 Preparation of alkyl amines 14.7 Nitriles 14.7.1 Nitrile formation Quick Check Summary Chapter 15: The Chemistry of Aromatic Compounds 15.1 Benzene 15.1.1 The structure of benzene 15.1.2 Nomenclature 15.1.3 The reactivity of benzene 15.1.4 Resonance in benzene 15.1.5 Substituent effects on reactivity 15.2 Reactions of benzene with electrophiles 15.2.1 Halogenation 15.2.2 Friedel-Crafts alkylation 15.2.3 Friedel-Crafts acylation 15.2.4 Nitration 15.2.5 Substituent effects on position of substitution 15.2.6 Reaction of phenol with electrophiles 15.2.7 Reaction of toluene with electrophiles 15.2.8 Reaction of nitrobenzene with electrophiles 15.3 Aniline Quick Check Summary Chapter 16: Substitution and elimination reactions 16.1 Substitution reactions 16.1.1 SN1 reactions 16.1.2 SN2 reactions 16.2 Elimination reactions 16.2.1 E1 reactions 16.2.2 E2 reactions 16.2.3 Zaitsev and Hoffman alkenes 16.3 Comparison of substitution and elimination reactions Quick Check Summary Chapter 17: Bringing it all together 17.1 Functional group interconversion 17.2 Bringing it all together Quick Check Summary Chapter 18: Polymerisation 18.1 Polymerisation 18.1.1 Addition Polymerisation 18.1.2 LDPE and HDPE 18.1.3 Condensation Polymerisation Quick Check Summary Chapter 19: Spectroscopy 19.1 Mass Spectrometry 19.1.1 How a mass spectrometer works 19.1.2 Using the data from the mass spectrum 19.1.3 Mass spectrometry in organic chemistry 19.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 19.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) 19.3.1 The NMR spectrum 19.3.2 Confirming the identity of O-H and N-H peaks 19.4 Bringing it all together Quick Check Summary